Sociology 202

Herbert Spencer

Survival of the fittest, social evolution, application of evolutionary theory to sociology, influence on social Darwinism and views on social progress

Robert Merton

Anomie, structural strain theory, deviance, and the impact of societal expectations on behavior

Max Weber

German sociologist with enormous influence, rejected Durkheim's call for social facts, analysis should begin with individuals. "Interpretive Understanding" we should figuratively walk in the shoes of those we study and see the world through their eyes, major contributions to "symbolic interaction paradigm"

George Simmel

Social interactions, urbanization, focus on dynamics of modern life, impact of urban living in social relationships, conflict in society

Caesare Lombroso

Italian School of Positivist Criminology, explains deviance and crime in purely biological terms

Sociology

The study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior

Diversity

Wide range of human beliefs, behaviors, and forms of social organization

Ethnocentrism

Tendency to judge other cultures by our own standards

Positivism

Idea that knowledge should be guided by "facts" rather than pure logic, imagination, or other non-factual sources

Social Facts

Qualities of groups that are external to individual members yet constrain their thinking and behavior

Structural Effects

Variations in human behavior that can be explained by social structure rather than individual differences

Social Class

Unequal position based on income, wealth or person's location in the economic systems

Functionalist Paradigm

Macro level, explains social organization in terms of roles or "functions" performed by individual members, groups, institutions, social relations. Society is like a living organism.

Conflict Paragigm

Macro level. Explains social organization and change in terms of conflict built into social relations. All social relations characterized by conflict. Social class is the major engine of change

Symbolic Interaction Paradigm

Emphasizes micro level social processes. Assumptions: importance of interaction; importance of symbols

Culture

All the beliefs, behaviors, and products common to members of a particular group (values, customs, language, rules, tools)

High culture

Fine arts, classical music, associated with elites and the wealthy

Popular culture

Spectator sports, TV, popular music. Forms of culture pursuied by larger numbers of middle and working class people.

Culture Imperialism

The deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture

Cultural Relativism

Practice of assessing a culture by its "own standards" rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture

Norms

Expectations for behavior

Values

General ideas about what is good, right, or just in a particular culture

Folkways

The traditional behavior or way of life of a particular community or group of people

Mores

Type of social norm that are strict rules and customs that define what is morally acceptable and unacceptable in a society

Symbolic Interaction

Foundation of human self and larger society, provides framework for understanding social relations in general, fruitful for understanding socialization

Behaviorism

Effects of "rewards" and "punishments" on observable behavior. Challenges popular beliefs of the period related to biological

Social Learning

Applying behaviorism to human beings, learning that occurs from observing others.

Imitation Stage

Children copy others around them. Role-taking essentially non-existent

Play Stage

Children take on roles of people around them. Importance of "significant others"

Game Stage

Children now able to take on multiple roles at same time. Start to develop a more general view of the self. See systems of social relations

Generalized Other

Abstract composite of social roles and social expectations. Develop more general understanding of social expectations

Socialization Agents

People, or sources, or structures that pass on social expectations

Social Interaction

Spoken words, gestures, body language, and other social cues come together in complex ways to create human communication

Social Construction of Reality

There is little reality beyond what is produced by the process of social interaction itself. Our perception of what is real is determined by the subjective meanings that we attribute to an experience

Thomas Theorem

What we believe to be real is real in its consequences. Moral codes and social norms are created by "successive defintions of the situation"

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Basic idea that through definitions of the situation reality becomes true. Influenced by our symbolic interactions

Roles

The behavior others expect from a person associated with a particular status

Role Strain

Results when too much is required of a single role

Role Conflict

Occurs when one or more roles are contradictory

Dramaturgical Approach

Study of social interaction as if it were governed by the norms of a theatrical performance

Frontstage

Comparable to where the performance occurs. What the audience sees. Carefully choreographed and ordered performance

Backstage

Equivalent of the theatrical backstage. All activity audience does not see but is critical to front stage performance where people can relax from norms of interaction.

Civil attention

Polite signal that we are conscious of another person's performance

Civil Inattention

Polite signal of awareness of another person's presence without indicating that you are aware of inappropriate or embarassing behavior

Deviant Behavior

Behavior that violates social norms and values shared by people in a particular culture, departs from social expectations

Pluristic Societies

Comprised of groups with diverse and often conflicting norms and values

Social Control

The regulation and enforcement of norms

Social Order

Goal of social control, an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society's members base their daily lives

Positive Sanctions

Rewards given for conforming to norms

Negative Sanctions

Punishments for violating norms

Informal Sanctions

Subtle sanctions that emerge in face-to-face social interactions (staring at someone talking too loud in a church)

Formal Sanctions

Ways to officially recognize and enforce the violation of norms (imprisonment for violating the law)

Anomie

Lack of the usual social or ethical standards in an individual or group.

Structural Strain Theory

Adapting anomie to explain deviance as resulting from person's position in the social structure. Structural strain as a form of anomie that occurs when a gap exists between the goals society sets for people and the means society provides for people to achieve those goals

Conformity

Pursuing culturally-valued goals through legitimate means

Innovative Deviance

Use of illegitimate means to achieve a legitimate goal

Ritualistic Deviance

Someone rejects the goals of society but still works hard to follow the rules

Retreatism Deviance

Withdrawing from society, rejecting the goals and means of achieving them

Rebellion

Replace goals and the means to achieve them

Social Disorganization Theory

Argues that crime is most likely to take place in communities with weak social ties and a lack of social control. People become increasingly engaged in criminal activity over time as a result of disorganization in communities.

Differential Association Theory

Type of symbolic interaction theory that interprets deviance as behavior learned through interaction with others. Greater degree of association = greater likelihood of behavior

Labeling Theory

The labels given to people can influence their behavior and self-identity.

Control Theory

Social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection and isolation from society

Attachment

Measures connections to others (family, friends, neighbors)

Commitment

Measures how invested we are in our communities (local businesswoman also leads the PTA)

Levels of involvement

Refers to participation in socially legitimate activities (children involved in youth sports are less likely to engage in delinquent activities)

Belief

The agreement on common values in society (an environmentalist is more likely to clean up the community because of their belief in a clean and healthy environment)

Empirical Evidence

Evidence that comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data or experimentation

Operational Definitions

Defining concepts in terms of the concrete steps it takes to measure it, identifies and observable condition of the concept

Antipositivism

Rejects the idea that the social world can be studied using the same methods as natural sciences

Nominal Variable

Tell you whether or not something falls into a particular category Ex: male or females

Ordinal Variable

Measures rank order Ex: social class

Ratio Variables

Permit absolute measures along a scale with a meaningful zero point Ex: Income, age

Ethnography

Extended observation of the social perspective and cultural values of an entire social setting Ex: study of a contaminated community

Interpretive Framework

Seeks to understand social worlds from the perspective of the participants

Process of Inquiry

1. Define research questions
2. Reviewing existing knowledge base (literature review)
3. Select appropriate methods of inquiry
4. Conduct inquiry (collect data)
5. Draw conclusions by analyzing data
6. Communicate results to others

C. Wright Mills

Described the importance of the sociological imagination when viewing the world, especially for people with power.

August Comte

French social theorist that coined "sociology". Emphasis on positivism. Coined sociology as "queen" of the sciences. Major work: The Positive Philosophy

Emile Durkheim

Credited with setting sociology on present course, established subject matter, laid out rules for conducting research, developed important theory of social change. Famous study of suicide. Father of the "functionalist paradigm"

Karl Marx

Born in Germany but lived in exile in France and England, primarily concerned with shortcomings of capitalism, focus on social change, believed social class is based on one's position in economic system. Father of the "conflict paradigm".

George Herbert Mead

One of the founders of symbolic interactionism. Drew on Cooley's looking glass self to develop concept of "role-taking"

W.E.B. DuBois

One of the most important early sociologists in the US, wrote about race

William Sheldon

Body types and deviance/crime (Mesomorphs - muscular, Ectomorphs - frail, Endomorphs - large)

Erving Goffman

Coined the Dramaturgical Approach

W.I. Thomas

Coined the Thomas Theorem

Harriet Martineau

First woman sociologist

Charles Horton Cooley

Theory of the "Looking Glass Self", self-image results from how we interpret other peoples' views of us, various forms of rewards and punishments as we formulate our own self-images.

Edwin Sutherland

Built on ideas of Mead and symbolic interaction, most influential American sociologist of 20th century. Created the differential association theory

Sociological Imagination

Ability to grasp the relationship between our lives as individuals and larger social forces that help shape them