Chapter 1–6 Psychology Review (Video Notes)

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including feelings (affect), actions (behavior), and thoughts (cognition).

Proximate causes

Immediate causes of behavior (e.g., hormones, brain activity, cognitions, emotions, automatic processing, current environment).

Distal causes

Long-term causes of behavior (e.g., genes, evolutionary adaptations, culture, childhood experiences).

Evolutionary perspective

View that behavior is driven by adaptations from natural and sexual selection. Traits that help survival or reproduction are more likely to be passed on.

Natural and sexual selection

Process by which traits that improve survival or reproductive success become more common in a population.

Biological Perspective

Approach emphasizing biology's role in behavior (hormones, genes, neurotransmitters, brain activity). Also called physiological/psychobiology/psychophysiology.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that influence physiology and behavior.

Genes

Units of heredity that influence traits and behavior.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers in the brain that affect neural signaling and behavior.

Brain regions activity

Activation of specific areas of the brain associated with particular behaviors or processes.

Behaviorism

Approach that argues behavior is learned from the environment and that cognition is not a necessary driver of behavior.

Classical conditioning

Learning by pairing a neutral stimulus with a reflexive response.

Operant conditioning

Learning through reinforcement and punishment shaping behavior.

Cognitive perspective

View that attention, memory, learning, and thinking influence behavior.

Attention

Focusing mental resources on specific information or tasks.

Memory

Processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Learning

Acquiring new knowledge or skills through experience or instruction.

Cognition

Mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and using information.

Sociocultural perspective

View that social context and culture shape behavior and mental processes.

Social psychology

Study of how others and social environments influence thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Cultural psychology

Study of how culture influences behavior and mental processes.

Power of the situation

Idea that situational factors can strongly influence behavior.

Interactionist approach

View that multiple levels of causality interact to drive behavior; often combines perspectives.

Social cognition

How people process information about others; includes activation of stereotypes.

Sociocultural interactions

How social environments and culture interact to shape behavior.

Science

Systematic enterprise to build knowledge about the universe through empirical evidence and verification.

Systematic empiricism

Collecting observable phenomena in an unbiased, orderly way.

Empiricism

Knowledge derived from sensory experience and evidence.

Public verification

Findings published for review, critique, replication, and extension by others.

Peer review

Evaluation of research by experts before publication to ensure quality.

Anecdotal evidence

Personal stories that are not reliable for generalization; science rejects relying on them.

Describe (in science)

Observing and documenting what behavior looks like.

Explain (in science)

Providing reasons why a behavior occurs.

Predict (in science)

Forecasting future behavior or outcomes based on evidence.

Scientific method

Ongoing cycle: question, hypothesis, data collection, communication; includes replication and critical review.

Naturalistic observation

Watching behavior in the subject’s natural environment without interference.

Participant observation

Researcher embeds themselves in the group being studied to observe behavior in context.

Observer effect

Participants alter their behavior because they know they are being observed.

Observer bias

Researcher’s beliefs or expectations influence observations.

Laboratory observation

Observing behavior in a controlled, artificial setting.

Case studies

In-depth study of an individual or small group; rich detail but limited generalizability.

Phineas