Western Civilization Final Exam Study Guide - June 2025

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192 Terms

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Printing Press

Invented by Johannes Gutenberg in 1440, it is a machine that produced books quickly and in large amounts, impacting the Renaissance and weakening the Catholic Church's control over knowledge.

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Luther's Main Beliefs

Sola fide = 'faith alone' (faith in Jesus Christ) is believed to be sufficient for salvation; the role of Sacraments shaped Protestantism and transformed Christian worship; Bible Authority is the ultimate authority in faith and practice, creating a faith that cares about the relationship with God.

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Luther's 95 Theses

A list of criticisms made to argue against the church, challenging the Catholic Church's authority, especially the sale of indulgences, and starting the Protestant Reformation in 1517, leading to major religious and political changes across Europe.

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Diet of Worms

An assembly where Luther was forced to admit his errors, leading to his excommunication and a religious power shift.

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Calvin's Beliefs

Predestination is the belief that God has decided who to save and who is damned before birth, part of Calvinism; The Elect are those predestined to heaven; City on a Hill is a moral and religious model influenced by Calvinism; Protestant Work Ethic emphasizes hard work and discipline, shaping capitalist economies.

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Henry VIII's Break from Catholic Church

Henry VIII broke away from the Catholic Church primarily due to personal and political reasons, including his desire for an annulment that the Pope refused to grant.

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Pope's refusal

The Pope refused to cancel Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon by declaring it invalid.

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Henry VIII's actions

Henry made himself head of the Church of England to gain power and remarry.

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Jesuits

Spread Catholicism through schools and missions.

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Council of Trent

Reformed Church practices and reaffirmed Catholic beliefs.

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Index of Forbidden Books

Banned Protestant or 'dangerous' writings to stop the spread of ideas.

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Edict of Nantes

Henry IV → final settlement that gave Huguenots limited religious toleration.

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Treaty of Westphalia

It was a series of treaties that ended religious conflict, specifically the Thirty Years' War, and allowed rulers to choose their country's religion.

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Impact of Treaty of Westphalia

Weakened the Holy Roman Empire and gave more power to individual states.

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30 Years War

It was the worst ever religious war → about 50% of Germans were slaughtered.

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Causes of the 30 Years War

Happened due to religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics; power struggles in Europe.

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Effects of the 30 Years War

Led to massive destruction (especially in Germany), 8 million dead, rise of state sovereignty.

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Capitalism

Economic system where resources are privately owned and made for profit → NOT THROUGH THE GOV.

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Impact of Capitalism on Dutch

Promoted individuality, hard work, and success within the Dutch economy; Dutch thrived through the Dutch East India Company.

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Mercantilism

Economic system that only benefits the 'mother country'.

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Impact of Mercantilism on Spain

Caused inflation; nations tried to get as much gold/silver as possible.

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Mercantilism principle

Exports > imports: Sell more than you buy to get richer.

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Spain's gold from colonies

Spain got tons of gold from colonies but spent too much, causing inflation and weakening their economy.

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Elizabeth's solution to problems

Established the Church of England (Anglican) for Protestants and Catholics, wanted no religious wars.

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Act of Uniformity

Set up a national church where those who did not go had to pay a fine.

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Elizabeth's economic strategies

Encouraged privateers to raid Spanish ships for treasure and supported trade, exploration, and new colonies.

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Spanish Armada

Sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 to invade England and stop her support of Protestants and pirates.

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Outcome of the Armada

England's smaller and faster ships, along with a surprise storm, led to Spanish defeat.

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Charles I and Parliament

He upset Parliament by ruling without them for 11 years and pushing rituals favored by the Church of England.

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Oliver Cromwell

A Puritan military genius who abolished the monarchy and led the Roundheads against Charles I.

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Charles I's fate

He was put on trial for treason by Cromwell and executed in 1649, becoming the first king killed by his own people.

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James II's actions

He upset Parliament by wanting to rule without their consent and giving power to Catholics.

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Glorious Revolution

A significant event in which James II was overthrown.

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English Bill of Rights

Guaranteed no absolute monarchy, giving Parliament power over laws, taxes, and the army, along with basic rights such as trial by jury and no cruel punishment.

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Absolutism

A system where the king or queen has total power and rules by divine right, with no checks on their authority.

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Versailles

Important to Louis' reign as it showcased his power and wealth, allowed him to keep nobles under control, and distracted them with luxury.

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Peter the Great's Accomplishments

Modernized Russia by building a navy, updating the army, and influencing societal dress and behavior; built St. Petersburg as a new trade and influence center.

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Scientific Revolution

Challenged old beliefs through observation and experimentation, emphasizing reason and logic over tradition and religion.

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Heliocentrism

The idea that the Earth orbits the sun, which challenged the church's geocentric view.

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Scientific Method

A step-by-step process for testing ideas that emerged during the Scientific Revolution.

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Impact of Scientific Revolution

Sparked Enlightenment thinking, led to advances in various sciences, and weakened the Church's control over knowledge.

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Copernicus

Proposed the heliocentric theory, challenging church beliefs and encouraging observation and questioning of old ideas.

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Kepler

Proposed that planets move in elliptical orbits and that their speed varies with distance from the sun, helping to prove heliocentrism.

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Galileo

Known as the 'Father of Modern Science', he made significant discoveries in astronomy and was tried for heresy for his support of heliocentrism.

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Newton

Referred to as the 'Father of Physics', he discovered laws of motion and universal gravitation, developed calculus, and studied light and optics.

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John Locke

Supported constitutional monarchy and natural rights, asserting that government must protect people's rights to life, liberty, and property.

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Thomas Hobbes

Advocated for a strong government with absolute rule to maintain order, believing in a social contract where people give up freedom for protection.

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Voltaire

Criticized the church and monarchy, promoting free speech, religious tolerance, and supporting constitutional monarchy and separation of powers.

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Montesquieu

Studied different forms of government and advocated for the separation of powers.

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Separation of powers

Proposed division of government into executive, legislative, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny.

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Checks and balances

System that ensures no one person has all the power within government.

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Rousseau

Philosopher who believed in direct democracy and the general will of all people, wrote The Social Contract.

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Diderot

Philosopher who spread knowledge through the Encyclopedia and challenged traditional authority.

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Descartes

Philosopher known for 'I think, therefore I am', emphasized reason and logic.

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Adam Smith

Economist who wrote The Wealth of Nations and advocated for free markets and laissez-faire economics.

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Issac Newton

Scientist who discovered gravity and motion laws, demonstrating that natural laws govern the universe.

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Mary Wollstonecraft

Early feminist who argued for women's rights and equality in education.

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Salons

Elegant drawing rooms where wealthy upper class gathered to discuss new ideas.

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Enlightenment ideas

Concepts such as reason, freedom, equality, progress, and secularism that inspired revolutions.

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Stages of a revolution

Moderate: limit king's power; Radical: abolish monarchy; Reactionary: stabilize after chaos.

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Long-term causes of the French Revolution

Unfair class divisions, Enlightenment ideas, and financial troubles from wars and spending.

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Immediate causes of the French Revolution

Weak leadership of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, food shortages, and the rigged Estates General.

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Old Regime

The social and political system in France before the revolution, characterized by class divisions.

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Three Estates

The social classes in France: clergy, nobility, and commoners, with the Third Estate bearing the tax burden.

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Estates General

Assembly representing the Three Estates, called for the first time in 175 years, highlighting system rigging.

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Natural rights

Rights that individuals are born with, which Enlightenment thinkers argued should be protected by government.

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Social contract

The agreement among individuals to form a government that protects their natural rights.

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Power from the people

The Enlightenment principle that government authority should derive from the consent of the governed.

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Jacobins

Radical political group during the French Revolution that sought to abolish the monarchy.

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Committee of Public Safety

Governing body during the French Revolution that took control during the Reign of Terror.

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Robespierre

Leader of the Jacobins who played a key role during the Reign of Terror before being executed.

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National Assembly

aka the Third Estate (claimed this name), wanted to draft a fair constitution, goal was to represent the people + make fair laws

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Tennis Court Oath

deputies of the National Assembly arrived at the meeting place but the doors were locked → moved to a nearby tennis court and swore they would all meet there until they had a new constitution

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Declaration of the Rights of Man

charter of basic liberties adopted by the National Assembly→ inspired English BoR, all men were free + equal before the law, no group should be exempt from taxation, freedom of speech + press, king refused to sign

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Storming of the Bastille

mobs stormed the bastille for their supply of gunpowder to defend Paris + National Assembly against the king→ symbolized the revolution

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Women's March on Versailles

women angry over high price of bread, Parisian women armed w/weapons went to Versailles to get the king's attention, women grew violent when they saw the extravagance of the palace, demanded the king + queen to move to Paris

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Radicals

led by the Jacobins + Robespierre → took extreme control

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Reign of Terror

time period where terror was used → purge + executions

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Guillotine

"National Razor" → device used for decapitating people → killed Louis + his wife

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The Committee of Public Safety

12 man council (passed violent reforms), over 40k executed in 1 month → most were regular people who were unenthusiastic

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French Revolution significance

destroyed absolute monarchy and inspired democracy worldwide; spread ideas of equality, citizenship, secularism; led to future revolutions (like in Latin America & Europe)

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The Directory

5 man council in charge of France (oligarchy) that was unstable (weak + corrupt) → led to unhappy people

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Continental System

created in 1806 by Napoleon to defeat Britain economically w/out military conflict, aimed to blockade Britain by cutting off trade between them + mainland Europe

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Invasion of Russia

Napoleon invaded them w/more than 600,000 troops, Russians used a scorched-earth policy → left French w/no supplies, invasion failed → the cold + starvation killed most of Napoleon's army

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100 Days

March 1815 → Napoleon escaped exile on Elba, returned to France to try to get power back → defeated at Waterloo (June 1815) → close to 100 days later

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Napoleonic Codes

equality before the law → all citizens were treated equally regardless of social class; property rights → protected private property, allowing individuals to own + control their land & possessions; civil liberties → religious freedom guaranteed, but freedom of speech + press was limited; meritocracy → individuals could rise in society based on their abilities, not birth/status

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Congress of Vienna

Major European powers Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia, and France met to restore stability after the Napoleonic Wars.

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Goal of Congress of Vienna

To balance power and prevent future wars.

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Enclosure Movement

Wealthy landowners fenced off common land, pushing small farmers out.

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Agricultural Revolution

New tools (seed drill, crop rotation) boosted food production.

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Impact of Agricultural Revolution

More food led to a population boom and fewer farm jobs, causing people to move to cities for factory labor.

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Industrial Revolution Origin

Began in Britain due to coal, iron, rivers, stable government, and colonies.

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Positive impacts of the Industrial Revolution

Formation of labor unions and the passing of labor laws (child labor limits, safety rules).

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Economic changes from Industrial Revolution

Increased production led to cheaper goods and a rising standard of living for some.

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Urbanization during Industrial Revolution

Rapid urbanization resulted in overcrowded, polluted, unsanitary slums.

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Improvements in cities post-Industrial Revolution

Eventually improved with sewers, streetlights, and public transport.

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Class tensions from Industrial Revolution

Growing divide between rich industrialists and poor working class, with rising middle class and worker strikes.

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Socialism

The government should regulate the economy to reduce inequality.

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Communism (Marx & Engels)

Workers will overthrow capitalism in a classless revolution.

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Reasons for 19th Century Imperialism

European nations wanted resources, new markets, and power; nationalism fueled competition.