Thinking, Decisions, Intelligence, and Language Ch 8

Cognition

Mental activities that include thinking and understanding that result in knowledge.

Thinking

Mental manipulation of representations of knowledge about the world.

Analogical representations

Mental representations that have physical characteristics of the objects they represent.

Symbolic representations

Abstract mental representations that do not correspond to the physical features of objects or ideas.

Concepts

Categories or classes of related items consisting of mental representations of those items.

Script

Type of schema that directs behavior over time within a situation.

Stereotypes

Schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups.

Heuristic

Shortcut used to reduce the amount of thinking needed to make decisions.

Anchoring

Tendency to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind.

Framing

The way information is presented affects how it is perceived and influences decisions.

Loss aversion

Tendency to prefer avoiding losses rather than acquiring equivalent gains.

Representativeness heuristic

Tendency to place a person or object in a category if they are similar to one’s prototype for that category.

Affective forecasting

Predicting how future events will make one feel.

Affective states

Emotional conditions that can bias decision

Intelligence

Ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to challenges.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

Index of intelligence measured in comparison with the average performance of others of the same age.

Multiple intelligences

The idea that there are different types of intelligence independent of one another (analytical, creative, practical, emotional).

General intelligence (g)

The idea that one general factor underlies intelligence.

Fluid intelligence

Ability to process information, understand relationships, and think logically, especially in novel or complex situations.

Crystallized intelligence

Knowledge acquired through experience and the ability to use it.

Environmental factors

Conditions like prenatal nutrition, family, substances, socioeconomic status, and education that influence intelligence.

Language

System of communication using sounds and symbols according to rules.

Perceptual narrowing

Brain process in which infants tune in to sounds they hear regularly and tune out those they do not.

Linguistic relativity theory

The idea that language determines thought.

Telegraphic speech

Toddler speech pattern using only essential words, such as “Want cookie.”

Overgeneralization

Applying grammar rules too widely (e.g., “runned,” “holded”).

Phonics

Teaching method focusing on the association between letters and sounds to improve reading.

Whole language

Reading approach emphasizing meaning, context, and literature over phonics.