Ch. 1: Introduction to Forensics Science

Forensic Science

The application of science to law; umbrella term.

Forensic Scientists

They supply accurate and objective information about the events that occurred at a crime scene.

Criminalistics

The services of a crime laboratory; principles and techniques of the physical and natural sciences applied to crime scene analysis.

The Scientific Method

Formulate a question worthy of investigation.

Formulate a reasonable (falsifiable) hypothesis to answer the question.

Test the hypothesis through experimentation.

Upon validation of the hypothesis, it becomes suitable as scientific evidence

Supreme Court decisions placing greater emphasis on securing scientifically evaluated evidence

Crime laboratories inundated with drug specimens due to accelerated drug abuse

The advent of DNA profiling

The ever-increasing number of crime laboratories is partly the result of the following:

Crime Laboratory Units

The technical support provided by crime laboratories can be assigned to five basic services.

The Physical Science Unit

The unit which incorporates the principles of chemistry, physics, and geology to identify and compare physical evidence.

The Biology Unit

The unit that applies the knowledge of biological sciences to investigate biological fluids or touch samples for DNA, as well as compare hair and fiber samples.

The Firearms Unit

The unit that investigates discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, and ammunition; tool mark comparisons may also be made in this unit.

The Document Examination Unit

The unit that provides the skills needed for handwriting analysis and other questioned-document issues such as obliterations, erasures, and burnt documents.

The Photography Unit

The unit that applies specialized photographic techniques for recording and examining physical evidence.

The Toxicology Unit

The unit that examines body fluids and organs for the presence of drugs and poisons.

The Latent Fingerprint Unit

The unit that processes and examines evidence for latent fingerprints.

The Polygraph Unit

The unit that conducts polygraph tests.

The Voiceprint Analysis Unit

The unit that attempts to link a recorded voice to a particular suspect.

The Crime Scene Investigation Unit

The unit that dispatches specially trained personnel to the crime scene to collect and preserve physical evidence.

They may provide expert court testimony

What may a forensic scientist provide?

Expert Witness

A forensic scientist who is called on to evaluate evidence based on specialized training and experience that the court lacks the expertise to do.

Frye v. United States

The decision that set guidelines for determining the admissibility of scientific evidence in the courtroom.

The evidence in question must be “generally accepted” by the scientific community

How must the evidence in question meet the Frye standard?

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical, Inc.

The decision in which the U.S. Supreme Court asserted that the Frye standard is not an absolute prerequisite to the admissibility of scientific evidence.

The Trial Judges

They are said to be ultimately responsible as “gatekeepers” for the admissibility and validity of scientific evidence presented in their courts, as well as all expert testimony.

Whether the scientific technique or theory can be (and has been) tested

Whether the technique or theory has been subject to peer review and publication

The technique’s potential rate of error

Existence and maintenance of standards controlling the technique’s operation

Whether the scientific theory or method has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific community

In Daubert, the Supreme Court offered some guidelines as to how a judge can gauge the reliability of scientific evidence:

The Evidence Technicians

They are trained by the crime lab staff; on 24-hour call for evidence collection at crime scenes.

Psychiatry

Odontology

Engineering

Computer and Digital Analysis

A number of special forensic science services are available to the law enforcement community to augment the services of the crime laboratory:

Behavior

What is forensic psychiatry?

Teeth

What is forensic odontology?

Failure analysis, accident reconstruction, and causes and origins of fires or explosions

What is forensic engineering?

The identification, collection, preservation, and examination of digital evidence

What is forensic computer and digital analysis?

Forensic Science

What does the application of science to law describe?

Sherlock Holmes

The fictional exploits of this character excited the imagination of an emerging generation of forensic scientists and criminal investigators.

Alphonse Bertillon

A system of personal identification using a series of body measurements was first devised by this man.

Sir Francis Galton

He is responsible for developing the first statistical study proving the uniqueness of fingerprints.

Leone Lattes

The Italian scientist who devised the first workable procedure for typing dried bloodstains.

Calvin Goddard

The comparison microscope became an indispensable tool of firearms examination through the efforts of this man.

Albert S. Osborn

Early efforts at applying scientific principles to document examination are associated with this man.

Hans Gross

The application of science to criminal investigation was advocated by this Austrian magistrate.

Edmond Locard

One of the first functional crime laboratories was formed in Lyons, France, under the direction of this man.

Edmond Locard

The transfer of evidence that occurs when two objects come in contact with one another was a concept first advocated by this man.

Los Angeles

The first forensic laboratory in the United States was created in 1923 by this police department.

California

This state is an excellent example of a geographical area in the United States that has created a system of integrated regional and satellite laboratories.

Forensic Science Service (FSS)

In contrast to the United States, Britain’s crime laboratory system is characterized by a national system these kinds of laboratories.

DNA

The increasing demand for these kinds of analyses has been the single most important factor in the recent expansion of crime laboratory services in the United States.

FBI, DEA, ATF, U.S. Postal Inspection Service

What are four important federal agencies offering forensic services?

Federal, state, county, and municipal

A decentralized system of crime laboratories currently exists in the United States under the auspices of various governmental agencies at which levels of government.

The Physical Science Unit

The application of chemistry, physics, and geology to the identification and comparison of crime-scene evidence is the function of which unit of a crime laboratory?

The Biology Unit

The examination of blood, hairs, fibers, and botanical materials is conducted in which unit of a crime laboratory?

The Firearms Unit

The examination of bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, and ammunition of all types is the responsibility of which unit?

The Toxicology Unit

The examination of body fluids and organs for drugs and poisons is a function of which unit?

The Evidence Collection Unit

Which unit dispatches trained personnel to the scene of a crime to retrieve evidence for laboratory examination?

Frye v. United States

The “general acceptance” principle, which serves as a criterion for the judicial admissibility of scientific evidence, was set forth in this case.

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.

In this case, the Supreme Court ruled that in assessing the admissibility of new and unique scientific tests, the trial judge did not have to rely solely on the concept of “general acceptance.”

False

The U.S. Supreme Court decision in Kumho Tire Co., Ltd. v. Carmichael restricted the “gatekeeping” role of a trial judge only to scientific testimony

Coppolino v. State

This Florida case that exemplifies the flexibility and wide discretion that the trial judge has in matters of scientific inquiry.

The Expert Witness

This is a person who can demonstrate a particular skill or has knowledge in a trade or profession that will help the court determine the truth of the matter at issue.

True

The expert witness’s courtroom demeanor may play an important role in deciding what weight the court will assign to his or her testimony.

True

The testimony of an expert witness incorporates his or her personal opinion relating to a matter he or she has either studied or examined.

Training

The ability of the investigator to recognize and collect crime-scene evidence properly depends on the amount of what received from the crime laboratory.

True

In 2004, the U.S. Supreme Court addressed issues relating to the Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment in the case of Crawford v. Washington.

Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts

This 2009 U.S. Supreme Court decision addressed the practice of using affidavits instead of in person testimony by forensic examiners.

Services are free to law enforcement

Public accountability

Reduced financial bias

What are the strengths of US crime laboratories?

Backlogs due to high caseloads

Limited funding and staffing

What are the weaknesses of US crime laboratories?

Potential for efficiency and innovation

Competitive incentives

What are the strengths of UK crime laboratories?

Profit motive may raise concerns about objectivity

Higher costs for services

What are the weaknesses of UK crime laboratories?

Suicide note = Document Examination Unit

Revolver with faint fingerprints = Fingerprint Unit

Skin and blood under fingernails = Biology Unit

Police investigating an apparent suicide collect the following items at the scene: a note purportedly written by the victim, a revolver bearing very faint fingerprints, and traces of skin and blood under the victim’s fingernails. What units of the crime laboratory will examine each piece of evidence?

Personnel are specially trained in evidence recognition and preservation

Reduces contamination and evidence loss

Allows detectives and patrol officers to focus on investigative duties

List at least three advantages of having an evidence collection unit process a crime scene instead of a patrol officer or detective.

Whether scientific testimony regarding poisoning was improperly admitted because the defense argued that the scientific evidence lacked general acceptance

What legal issue was raised on appeal by the defense in Carl Coppolino’s Florida murder trial?

Frye v. United States because the court rejected the defense’s claim, finding that the forensic methods used met admissibility standards and that the trial judge acted within proper discretion.

What court ruling is most relevant to the decision to reject the appeal?