ATAR PSYCH - THEORIES AND STUDIES

Craik and Tulving 1975 - aim

Aim: to determine the impact that levels of processing have on the recall of memory.

Craik and Tulving 1975 - Method

• participants: sixty males and female students from the University of Toronto were selected to be part of the sample. Convenience sampling was utilised as both C and T were based on which the participants studied.

• Materials: a list of 60 words, a set of three questions and a list of 180 words that incorporated the original 60 words.

• Design: the independent variable was the type of encoding used to memorise a list of words: structured, phonemic, and semantic encoding. The dependent variable was the number of words recalled.

Craik and Tulving 1975 - procedure

They were randomly allocated into one of three conditions

• all participants were provided with a list of 60 words and were required to answer one for each word.

• A list of 180 words was given to each participant. They were required to indicate which words were part of the original list.

Craik and Tulving 1975 - key findings

• participants in the semantic encoding recalled words than participants in the phonemic or structural encoding conditions.

• If semantically encoded via elaborative rehearsal and deep processing led to higher recall accuracy.

• Those that were structurally and phonetically encoded underwent shallow processing, resulting in less accurate recall

Craik and Tulving 1975 - contribution and limits

• contribution: the empirical evidence provided because of the study enabled other researchers to run similar experiments, demonstrated high reliability

• Limitations: it is unclear whether it is the depth of processing that improves retrieval of information from LTM, or the greater effort is used during encoding.

Pavlov 1902 - aim

• investigate classical conditioning in dogs and understand how they form associations between different stimulus

Pavlov (1902) - method

• Pavlov conducted experiments where he presented a neutral stimulus (a bell) followed by a stimulus that naturally elicits a response (food)

• Through repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus that could elicit a conditioned response

• After a few trials, dogs could be conditioned to respond to sound by salivating.

Pavlov (1902) - key findings

• the dogs could be conditioned to associate a neutral stimulus with a biologically significant stimulus, leading to the development of a conditioned response

• Evidence that repetitive association of different stimuli led to learning, demonstrating the principles of conditioning.

Pavlov (1902) - contribution and criticisms

• it laid the foundation for the understanding conditioning and its significance in learning and behaviour.

• Criticisms were the concerns on generalisability of his findings beyond animal studies and the oversimplification of learning processes.

Watson and Rayner (1920) - aim

• to demonstrate that classical conditioning could be used to condition a fear response in a young child towards a specific stimulus.

Watson and raynor (1920) - method

• researchers conditioned Little Alber to fear a white rat by pairing the presentation of the rat with a loud, sudden noise.

• Placed rat on floor, allowing play with rat.

• Showed no fear, but did when steel bars was struck with hammer, making a loud noise

Watson and raynor (1920) - key findings

• through the process of classical conditioning, Little albert developed a fear response not only to the rat but also to similar stimuli like a rabbit, dog, and fur coat.

• Demonstrating the generalisation of fear responses

Watson and raynor (1920) - contribution/critic

• highlighted the principles of classical conditioning and the impact of environment on behaviour.

• criticisms include ethical considerations regarding the use of a young child as a subject without his consent, the long-term impact on Little Albert’s emotional well-being,

Thorndike 1898 - aim

• examines the influence reinforcement had on the behaviour of cats seeking to escape from a puzzle box in order to reach food

Thorndike 1898 - method

• thirteen cats

• Puzzle boxes, food for the cats, a clock for timekeeping

• The independent variable was the number of times the cats were placed in the puzzle boxes

• Dependent variable was the length of time it took for the cats to escape from the puzzle boxes

Thorndike 1898 - procedure

• cat was placed in a puzzle box, an enclosed wooden box with slats allowing the cats to look out from and reach a paw through. Fish was placed nearby the puzzle box

• Used numerous puzzle boxes, each with a different method by which a door could be opened internally by the cat

• Thorndike placed a hungry cat inside a puzzle box, closed the door of the box and set the mechanism holding the door shut

• The time it took for the cat to triggered the release mechanism and exit the box was recorded. This was repeated many times with multiple cats and a range of puzzle boxes.

Thorndike 1898 - key finding

• demonstrated operant conditioning, specifically positive reinforcement

• The cats received food when then pressed the lever to open the door of the puzzled boxes, thus increasing the likelihood of them continuing to press the lever each time they were placed the boxes

Thorndike 1898 - contribution/criticisms

• contribution that formed the foundation on which theorists built their understanding of operant conditioning

• Based on an animal model of a trial and error learning and reinforcement of behaviour. Cannot be generalised to humans

Skinner 1948 - aim

• to demonstrate the process of operant conditioning in pigeons

Skinner 1948 - method

• eight pigeons

• Experimental cage with attached timer and food hopper, and bird feed

• Independent variable was the time Interval at which food was released

• The dependent variable was the observed behaviour of the pigeons

Skinner 1948 - procedure

• amount of food the pigeons were fed was reduced to increase their hunger levels

• Each pigeon then placed individually into the experimental cage for a few minutes each day

• A timer was programmed to present food to the pigeon at set intervals via a hopper that tipped down through an opening in the cage wall

• The regular interval at which the hopper would tip was manipulated by the researchers, the length of time the hopper remained lowered into position was five seconds, during which the pigeon would eat

• A fixed interval schedule of reinforcement was used

Skinner 1948 - key findings

• shorter intervals between the release of food proved more effective than longer intervals. Specifically fifteen second intervals were found to successfully produce conditioned behaviours

• Operant conditioning was observed in 6/8 pigeons. Conditioned to perform a unique behaviour, which the food hopper tipped into the cage

Skinner 1948 - contribution/criticsm

• illustrates how animals can be developed superstitious behaviours similar to humans.

• Criticisms is that animal studies of learned behaviour are not able to be generalised to humans.

‘bobo doll’ experiment (bandura, ross, and ross, 1961) - aim

• to determine whether children who observe an adult bheaving aggresively will imitate the aggressive behaviour

bandura, ross, and ross, 1961 - method

participants - 36 boys and 36 girls aged between three and four years old selected via convenience sampling from the childcare centre at Stanford University

materials - a bobo doll, craft items, a mallet with a peg board, a dart gun, bears, a stea set, a ball, cars, behaviour checklist, and a clock

design - the independent variable was the exposure of children to aggressive adult models vs non-aggressive adult models. the dependent variable was the observed aggressive behaviour in the children recorded every five seconds for twenty minutes

bandura, ross, and ross, 1961 - procedure stage 1 modelling

• children were individually shown into a room containing toys and played with some potato prints and pictures in a corner for 10 minutes while either:

• 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) watched a male or female model behaving aggressively towards a toy called ‘bobo doll’. the adult attacked the bobo doll in a distinctive manner - they used a hammer in some cases, and in others threw the doll in and air and shouted, “pow, boom”

• another 24 children were shown a non-aggressive model and played with other toys other than the bobo doll

• another 24 children (““) were used as a control group and not exposed to any model at all

bandura, ross, and ross, 1961 - procedure stage 2 aggression arousal

• after ten minutes of exposure the experimenter took the child to a second room with desirable toys, but soon after the child started playng she told them these toys are reserved for other children and that there are toys they can play with in the adjoining room. frustrating the children instigated aggressive arousal in the children

bandura, ross, and ross, 1961 - procedure stage 3 test for delayed imitation

• the third experimental room contained toys including the bobo doll, a dart gun, a mallet with peg board, a tea set, a ball and bears. the room was set up the same for each child and all the children, including those in the control group, participated in this stage. the experimenter worked quietly in the corner of the room

• each child was observed for 20 minutes by researchers watching through.a one-way mirror and their behaviour was scored against a set oof predetermined criteria

Bandura, Ross, and Ross 1961 - key findings

• Children who observed an aggressive adult model were more likely to mimic the physical and verbal actions they displayed towards the bobo doll than the other experimental group

• Boys imitated more physically aggressive behaviour than the girls, however, there was a similar level of imitative verbal aggression between the boys and girls

• A higher rate of imitated aggressive behaviour was observed in the children who were exposed to the same-sex model than the children exposed to the adult model of the opposite sex.

Bandura, Ross, and Ross, 1961 - contribution

• Provided a framework from which research grew into the effect of violence shown on television had on aggressive behaviours in children.

Bandura 1977 - theory of social learning

• Bandura believed that social learning is an active process rather than a passive process

Bandura 1977 - Process of Observational Learning

• attention: involves the learner focusing their awareness on the modelled behaviour, they must have a reason to do this.

• retention: individuals form a mental representation of the behaviour they observe and retain it

• Reproduction: the mental representation is turned into action that the individual is capable of production or performing

• Motivation: observers must have a reason to learn what is being observed

Bandura 1977 - vicarious reinforcement

A form of observational learning in which the observed consequences of a model’s actions can modify the behaviour of the learner

Bandura 1977 theory - criticisms

• criticised for being too broad, addressing a wide array of factors – personal, behavioural, and environmental – without always providing specific instructions on how to prioritise or measure them.

He et al. 2020 - aim

• to determine how limiting the use of mobile phones before bedtime affects mood, working memory, pre-sleep arousal, sleep quality, and sleep habits.

He et al., 2020 - method

participants - 38 university students who had the habit of using their mobile phones before bed as well as experiencing poor sleep quality.

materials - positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS), n-back tasks, pre-sleep arousal scale (PSAS), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Online Sleep Diary

design - (IV) mobile phone use during bedtime vs no mobile phone use 3- minutes before bedtime. (DV) Were mood, working memory, pre-sleep arousal, sleep quality and sleep habits measured using the differing materials listed above.

he et al,. 2020 procedure 

• Researchers obtained ethics approval from the Ethical Committee of the Second Military Medical University. 

• Students from this university responded to details posted on social media and provided their written informed consent to participate in the study 

• All participants completed before mentioned tests measuring their mood, working memory, pre-sleep arousal, and sleep quality. Additionally, they recorded their sleep habits via an online diary entry. 

• Participants were randomly assigned into experimental and control groups with nineteen participants allocated to each 

• For the next four weeks, participants in the experimental group abstained from using their mobile phones 30 minutes before bedtime, while those in the control group continued to use their phone before planned bedtime 

• After the four-week mark, participants completed the same tests as set during pretesting and these were compared 

he et al., 2020 - key findings

Participants who did not use their mobile phones 30 minute before bedtime were shown to: 

• Take less time to fall asleep  

• Stayed asleep for longer 

• Had improved sleep quality  

• Reduced pre-sleep arousal  

• Improved positive effect and reduced the negative effects 

• Improvemnt in their working memory

he et al., 2020 - contri/criti

• utilises well established measured, allowing it to be replicated by other researchers. with replication comes the ability to assess the reliability.

• the sample size for the sample was small, thus limiting the ability to generalise results to the population the sample was taken from.