REFORMATION AND RELIGIOUS WARS IDs

Ulrich Zwingli

• Swiss Pastor and theologian, attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel  

• Founded the Swiss Reformation, important figure in the Reformation, accepted the supreme authority of the Scriptures 

• 1520s (Swiss Reformation established in Zurich) - early 17th century? 

• City of Zurich, Switzerland, Europe 

• Lessened RCC authority, power to the general public with emphasis on Scripture (also helped with the increasing literacy and spread of vernacular language), led to inter-cantonal (Wars of Kappel) when some cantons remained Catholic, dissolution of political unity under Christianity (Kappel Wars much later led to federal system separating religion and politics) 

Martin Luther

• German priest/clergyman, formative figure of the Protestant Reformation, and founder of Lutheranism, had a great thirst for knowledge, attempted monastic life, trained in law 

• His 95 Theses (nailed to the church door) served as a catalyst for the Protestant Reformation- it publicly questioned the Church's authority and spoke out against abuses, mainly indulgences  

• 95 Theses written in 1517, Protestant Reformation was 1517-1648, although Luther himself lived from 1483 to 1546 

• Wittenberg, Germany 

• Questioned and lessened RCC authority, helped to popularize vernacular literature with his teaching of the Bible as a central authority, catalyzed frustrations against the Church and brought to the public the opinions of previous reformers like Erasmus to spark the Protestant Reformation, which led to reforms in the Church and many other Protestant sects that have since been the root of many conflicts, inspired/encouraged other Protestant reformers  

John Calvin

• French theologian, pastor, and reformer in Geneva, leading figure in the French Protestant Reformation, founder of Calvinism, also trained in law, 

• Founded Calvinism in 1520s-1530s, wrote the influential institutes of the Christian Religion, which made him famous, made Geneva a "city of God on earth," essentially made Geneva a theocracy under his control, emphasized Predestination and taught that hard work -> getting into Heaven, 2 sacraments of baptism and communion  

• Lived 1509-1564, (1536 influential institutes of the Christian Religion) 

• Born in France, fled to Switzerland after angering French Catholics 

• Started what is known as the "protestant work ethic" (coined by Weber), influenced other protestant groups (Huguenots, Puritans, Presbyterians), a lot of his teachings influence Protestant sects now  

Suleiman the Magnificent

• Suleiman I, known as "Suleiman the Magnificent" in the West and "Suleiman the Lawgiver" in his realm, was the longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire 

• Under him, the Ottoman Empire flourished, conquering Hungary (going as far as Vienna) and posing a significant threat to the HRE's Habsburgs- additionally under him, trade of the Ottoman empire flourished as they were able to conquer Constantinople and establish a monopoly over things Europeans wanted  

• Lived 1494-1566 

• Ottoman Empire 

• He and the rise of the Ottoman Empire was blamed for Protestant Reformation (scapegoat) as he was a Muslim ruler (although he allowed for religious tolerance)  

Pope Leo X

• Was head of the Papal Church, born a Medici 

• Martin Luther thought he was the devil incarnate, heavily involved in the corruption of the RCC, excommunicated Luther, did not address concerns of the Reformation, involved in the Diet of Worms (under his papacy) 

• Lived 1475-1521, excommunicated Luther in 1521 

• Lived in Florence, Papal states 

• His papacy is directly tied to the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation as he was directly involved in the selling of indulgences. However, because he sold indulgences, he was able to fund the construction of St. Peter's Basilica 

Charles V

• Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, grandson of Isabella of Castille and Ferdinand of Aragon, nephew of Catherine of Aragon (Henry's first wife who he wanted to divorce; Charles V pressured the pope into refusing the divorce) 

• Defended Catholicism, faced external pressures from the Ottoman Empire which diverted attention from stopping the spread of Protestantism, confronted Luther at the Diet of Worms and demanded he take back what he said basically, Peace of Ausburg happened during his reign 

• Lived 1500-1558, Diet of Worms in 1521 

• Holy Roman Empire (Modern day France, Germany, and Italy) 

• Oversaw critical events like the Diet of Worms and Peace of Augsburg which helped to solidify Protestantism  

Frederick the Wise

- Frederick the Wise was the Elector of Saxony and worked for constitutional reform of the Holy Roman Empire

- Known for protecting Martin Luther from the wrath of the Catholic Church as Elector and founding the University of Wittenburg. He was a Catholic but agreed with many Reformation ideals. 

- 1521 (Diet of Worms which caused Luther to be put into custody and for Frederick to   protect him from persecution). 

- Saxony/ Holy Roman Empire 

- Frederick was crucial to the success of Martin Luther and an essential supporter. His  belief in fair trial and against religious conviction allowed Martin Luther to continue  spreading his ideas.  

Phillip of Hesse

- German nobleman and champion of the Protestant Reformation.  

- Founded the first protestant University on 1529 in Marburg and united several princes   and towns to form the Schmalkadic League. The emperor later crushed this league and   Phillip was imprisoned but he saw Lutheranism gain a position of legal equality with   Catholicism with the Peace of Augsburg. 

- 1531 (Creation of Schmalkadic League) 

- Hesse, Germany 

- Phillip of Hesse was one the most important early protestant rulers and set things in   motion for the rise of Lutheranism in Northern Europe. 

Francis I

- King of France from 1515 to 1547 who was a Renaissance Patron of the arts and scholarship, humanist, and knightly king. 

- Francis I was a very popular king, as he stood up for the common man, until the election of Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor. Francis waged a series of wars with Charles V   and sought alliance with Henry VIII, but Francis was taken captive in 1525. War   resumed in 1536 and Francis formed an alliance with the Turks against the emperor. 

- 1515 to 1547 

- France 

- Francis’ reign saw significant cultural changes including the growth of central power in   France, spread of humanism and Protestantism, and beginning of French exploration. 

Conrad Grebel

- Son of a prominent Swiss merchant and councilman and he was the main founder of the    Swiss Brethen, an anabaptist movement. 

- Conrad Grebel had a humanist education which led him to form his own, more radical    reform movement. The Anabaptists’ primary conflict was over infant versus adult    baptism (anabaptists supported adult baptism). He was a successful missionary but was    imprisoned twice. 

- 1524 (Official break from the other Swiss reform church) 

- Zurich, Switzerland 

- He was the leader of the Anabaptist movement, and his radical views align with many   of the evangelicals today.  

Mary Tudor

- Queen of England and Ireland from 1553 to 1556 and was a devout Catholic; nicknames Bloody Mary.  

- Married Phillip II of Spain and restored Roman Catholicism to England. She revived the laws against heresy, earning the nickname Bloody Mary because of her violent   persecution of Protestants. She was a very unpopular queen and lost the last of   England’s continental territory in a war against France. 

- 1553 to 1556 

- England 

- She was the very first queen England ever had, however she persecuted countless protestants and executed over 300 of her subjects. 

Thomas Wolsey

- English statesman, Catholic Bishop/Cardinal, and Henry VIII’s almoner. Bishop of Lincoln, archbishop of York, cardinal, and papal legate. 

- During his life, he gained incredible power in England. Henry appointed him lord chancellor and Wolsey allied with Charles V against France. Introduced judicial and   monastic reforms but was unpopular for raising taxes. Failed to persuade the pope to   grant the King’s annulment. 

- 1515 (became a cardinal) 

- England 

- Wolsey’s failure to get an annulment for Henry VIII would ultimately lead to the creation of the Church of England and the different branches of Christianity we still have today. 

Thomas More

- English Judge, lawyer, statesman, philosopher, humanist, and lord chancellor under Henry VIII. 

- Author of the humanist and idealist book “Utopia”. More was a close friend of Henry VIII and was appointed to his council and then Speaker of the House of Commons. He became Lord Chancellor after Wolsey but resigned in 1532 as he could not accept the   Act of Supremacy. Executed by Henry VIII. 

- 1517 (appointed to King’s Council) 

- England 

- More was named a Catholic saint because of his rejection of Henry’s break from the Catholic Church. Contributed immensely to humanist ideas. 

Michael Servetus

- Spanish theologian, physician, cartographer, and Renaissance humanist. 

- First European to correctly describe the function of pulmonary circulation, and published the book Christianismi Restitutio. A polymath in science, literature, as well as studies Bible in its original language. 

- 1553 (time of death) 

- Spain, France 

- Burned at the stake by the Protestants and was seen as a heretic by both the Catholics and Protestants. 

Saint Bartholomew’s day Massacre

- A massacre that took place during the French religious wars. The Protestants were slaughtered by the Catholics. 

- An assassination attempt toward the Huguenot leaders after the marriage between Catholic princess Margaret and Protestant king Henry of Navarre. Later the assassination turned into the slaughter of Huguenots. A total of 5,000 to 30,000 people were killed. 

- August 24, 1572 

- France 

- Caused the death of some of the most influential leaders in the Huguenots. The ones that remained became more radical and leading to the fourth religious war. 

Henry of Guise

- The Duke of Guise who is Catholic and one of the three Henrys during the French religious war. 

- He was the leader of the Catholic League and received a wide popularity among the Catholic followers. The Catholics wanted to make him king of France but he was assassinated by King Henri III, who is Protestant. 

- 1588 (time of assassination) 

- France 

- His death angered the Catholics and soon led to the assassination of Henry III, who assassinated him. 

Henry VIII

- The King of England from 1509 to 1547 

- He divorced his first wife Catherine of Aragon but was not agreed by the church, so he separated the Church of England from the pope and appointed himself as the Supreme Head of the Church. He made radical changes to the English Constitution and increased the power of the king.  

- 1534 (pass of Act of Supremacy that made him the Supreme Head of the Church of England) 

- England 

- Established the Royal Navy of England and also used the theory of divine rights to justify his increase of power. He breaks from the Catholic church and was the first to hold religious powers to the kings. 

Ignatius of Loyola

- Spanish Catholic priest and theologian who founded the Society of Jesus which is regarded as the Jesuits 

- He created the Jesuits with the primary purpose of spreading Catholic Christianity and founded the Collegio Romano. It led the Counter-Reformation by converting many to Catholic. He also published the book “Spiritual Exercises” which paid attention to spiritual formation.  

- 1540 (founding of the Jesuits) 

- Spain, France, Italy 

- He was known for his missionary, educational, and charitable works. He also led the Jesuits in modernizing the Roman Catholic Church. 

Catherine de Medici

- Queen of France from 1547 to 1559 by marriage to King Henry II and was the mother of French kings Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III. 

- She was the main person responsible for the St. Batholomew’s Day Massacre which is part of the French Wars of Religion. She was also the mother to three kings of France and a powerful monarch. 

- 1572 (conducted the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre) 

- France 

- She supported the Renaissance movement by patronizing artists.   

Pope Paul III

• head of catholic church and ruler of the papal states from 1534-1549.  

• known for being the last of the renaissance popes and the first pope of catholic reform. 

• Was pope from 1534 to his death in 1549 

• Born in Italy, opened papal courts in Trento, later moved papal courts to bologna, died in Rome. 

• Encouraged the beginning the reformation by investigating unlawful church activities such as the selling of indulgences, approved of catholic reformation. 

Miguel de Cervantes

• Early modern Spanish writer who is regarded as the greatest writer in the Spanish language. 

• Wrote “Don Quixote” which can be considered the first modern novel and was later adapted into an extremely successful ballet.  

• Lived from 1547-1616, published Don Quixote in 1605- renaissance period 

• Born Alcala de Henares, Spain, Died Madrid, Spain, lived mainly in Spain 

• His masterpiece “Don Quixote” is considered one of the greatest works of literature of all time. Satirical exploration of chivalry, idealism vs reality, and reflection of the Spanish empire’s decline in power. 

Shakespeare

• English playwright, poet, and actor who is a literary hero and is regarded as one of the greatest writers in the English language.  

• Mostly known for his plays (Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet, etc.) also wrote a lot of poems, basically created the poem genre of sonnets. Plays were usually very tragic and had complex themes and characters 

• Lived: 1564-1616. Most active in late 16^th century early 17^th century and lived in the renaissance period 

• Born in a market town in Warwickshire, England. Mostly stayed in England/London where he held his plays and acted. 

• Had a lasting impact on the English language (made new phrases) and literature. Set the standard for English literature and influenced many famous authors/people who write throughout history. Was also very financially successful and people in his time period liked his plays. 

Christopher Marlowe

• English, playwright, poet, actor/dramatist. Was alive around same time as Shakespeare. Very influential Elizabethan era playwright 

• Famous plays include Doctor Faustus, The jew of Malta, and Tamburlaine. His plays were very poetic and had themes on ambition, power, and human nature. 

• Lived 1564- 1593. Born in canterbury, England. Most active in late 16^th century, Elizabethan era, died under mysterious circumstances.  

• Born in canterbury, studied in a college in Cambridge, his career mainly based in London 

  • His unique style of playwrighting (blank verse) shaped English renaissance drama and had a great influence on Shakespeare and future playwrights. 

Peter Paul Rubens

• Flemish Baroque painter 

• A lot of contributions to the development of the Baroque style à vibrant colors, dynamic compositions, a lot of human figures. Painted historical (secular) and religious and mythological paintings. 

• Lived: 1577-1640 à baroque period. Career peaked in the early 1600’s 

• Born in Germany, but moved to Antwerp, Belgium in his childhood where he spend most of the rest of his life due to Antwerp’s prosperous art community 

• A lot of influence and innovation of the baroque art style, also served as a diplomat and used his knowledge of languages to act as an ambassador and negotiate treaties, notable works: “The raising of the cross” , “the decent from the cross” 

Gian Lorenzo Bernini

• Italian artisan (Sculptor, architect, painter/artist) was a prominent artist in the baroque period. 

• Was good at all art forms, his art had very intense emotions and dramatic features. Best known for his sculptures, notable works include “Apollo and Daphne”, “Ecstasy of Saint Teresa” and “David”. (this was the sculptor guy they talked about in that travel guide YouTube video we watched in class) 

• Baroque period à lived: 1598-1680. Career peaked in first half of 17^th century and his fame lasted into the late 17^th century. 

• Also had a large amount of influence on the baroque style, mainly known for sculptures, also made some prominent architecture à St. peter’s square and St. Peter’s Basilica interior, had a lot of support from the church and popes. 

Rembrandt van Rijn

- famous dutch painter and pioneer of etching 

- was known for his skill in depicting light and shadows, some of his famous works are à “the night watch”, “self portrait with 2 circles” 

- dutch golden age, career in the 17^th century, lived: 1606-1669 

- born in leiden, dutch empire, but moved to Amsterdam where his career flourished 

- Known for his mastery over light and shadows and his portrayal of people in portraits where it seemed to capture their emotion, also a pioneer in etching for prints, also had great influence over later dutch artists, he partly inspired the dutch baroque style 

Phillip II of Spain

• Was the son of Charles V and Isabella of Portugal, he was born in May 1527 and succeeded the Spanish throne in 1556 and the Portuguese throne in 1580. A devout Roman Catholic that was married to the Catholic queen Mary I until her death in 1558. 

• After the death of King Sebastian of Portugal without heirs, he conquered the Portugues throne, taking what he thought was rightfully his. He was also highly active in protecting the Catholic Church in Europe, but his motives for helping the Catholic Church were hard to distinguish from his want to catapult Spain to the head of European society. He sent money and men to the Holy League in France to oppose Henry of Navarre and the Huguenots, eventually claiming the throne for his daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia. Though Henry of Navarre did eventually take the throne, he was forced to convert to Catholicism. He also completed the unification of the Iberian Peninsula begun by Ferdinand and Isabella.  

• He took over the Portuguese throne in 1580, was born May 21, 1527, in Valladolid Spain. He died September 13, 1598. He was King of Spain beginning in 1556 and of Portugal (1580) until his death in 1598. 

• He was a Spanish and then Portuguese King that was in the Iberian Peninsula, but also influenced France, England, and the Netherlands. 

• His pressure and support of Catholics in France was a major reason that Henry of Navarre had to become Catholic. He directly impacted monarchies of different countries and their religions of those monarchs. 

Henry of Navarre

• Henry of Navarre, also known as Henry IV, was a French Protestant leader until his eventual takeover of the French throne during which he had to convert to Catholicism.  

• He took part in the War of the Three Henrys, in which he fought Henry the III at the Battle of Coutras and won. He eventually sided with Henry III who had Duke de Guise assassinated but was later stabbed. He died the next day, but not before he declared Henry his heir. As King, Henry signed the Edict of Nantes which gave rights and religious freedom to Protestants in France. 

• He was born December 13, 1553, and died May 14, 1610. He was King of France (1589-1610) after the War of the Three Henrys (1585-1589).  

• He was King of France, Navarre, and sovereign lord of Bearn. 

• With his rule of France and his subsequent signing of the Edict of Nantes, he ended religious wars between the Huguenots and Roman Catholics of France and succeeded in keeping France from falling into Spanish hands. He was also the first King of the Bourbon line.  

Elizabeth I

• Born September 7, 1533, to Henry the VIII and his then wife Anne Boleyn, she became Queen of England from 1558 to her death in 1603. Her reign was known as the Elizabethan age, but she was given many nicknames of her own ranging from the Virgin Queen for taking no husband to Good Queen Bess. 

• She took England back to its former Protestant path that it had strayed from after the reign of her Catholic sister Mary. She used the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity to cement her power and used religion as more so a way to maintain social unity rather than because of zealousness. She didn’t marry throughout her entire rule, and was known to manipulate many nobles against each other, chasing her affections, all while she kept her real intentions hidden. She was a strong ruler that influenced an entire age.  

• She was born September 7^th, 1533, and became Queen after her sister’s death in 1558. Her reign ended with her death on March 24^th, 1603. She passed the Acts of Supremacy in 1559 and defeated the Spanish armada lead by Phillip II (widowed husband of her sister Mary and one of her suitors when she had taken the throne) in 1558. 

• She was the Queen of England, but was specifically born in Greenwich, England, a city near London. 

• She steered England back towards Protestantism after the reign of the Catholic Queen Mary. Her father Henry VIII had created the Church of England in response to not being able to divorce Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth’s mother. Elizabeth maintained control over the tumultuous country with a strong and steady hand that allowed her to strengthen and unify England even in the face of such division.  

Ferdinand I

• He was a Spaniard born March 10, 1503, and died July 25, 1564. He was the Holy Roman Emperor (1558-1564) and King of Bohemia and Hungary (1526). 

• He brought the rulership of the Bohemian and Hungarian crowns, that had been formally elected crowns, into hereditary control of the Austrian Hapsburgs. He assisted his brother Charles V in ruling the Holy Roman Empire, and through his prodding, was given the Germanic part of the Hapsburg Empire, with Charles V excluding Philip II from it. Ferdinand eventually believed that a compromise needed to be reached with Protestants, negotiating the Treaty of Passau (1552) with the Lutheran Maurice of Saxony and signing the Peace of Augsburg (1555).  

• He was born March 10^th, 1503, ruled Bohemia and Hungary (1526), and eventually ruled the HRE (1558), all until his death on July 25^th, 1564. He signed the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. 

• He was born in Spain, but was a King of Bohemia, Hungary, and eventually Holy Roman Emperor. Through the Peace of Augsburg, he also brought religious peace to Germany for 50 years.  

• He was instrumental in obtaining peace between the Protestants and Roman Catholics in Germany through the Peace of Augsburg, and he also split the Hapsburg dynasty between the Spanish holdings and Germanic holdings. 

John Knox

• He was born circa 1514 and died November 24, 1572. He was a priest and leader of the Scottish Reformation.  

• He preached a sermon in St. Andrews that cemented his position as a leader in the Scottish Reformation. He was then put under slavery by the French in 1547 for 19 months (about 1 and a half years). During the reign of Edward VI, he was sent to Berwick-upon-Tweed to bring it to Protestantism. He was later moved to Newcastle (1551) where he was appointed to be a royal chaplain. He left a mark on the Church of England, but when Mary Tudor became Queen of England, he had to flee the country. Through the ending of hostilities between the French and Spanish in 1559, the Queen Regent of France (Mary of Guise) believed it to be an opportune moment to half Protestant expansion in Scotland. In June, Protestants held Edinburgh. If the French won against the Protestants, that would put the English and Elizabeth I in danger. Knox used that rationale in pleading with the English and in turn Elizabeth I for help. Knox influenced he Scottish Parliament with the First Book of Discipline. He was also a direct opponent to Mary and threatened her reign.  

• He was born in 1514 and died in 1572 and was ordained in 1540. 

• He was a Scot but preached in England and Geneva.  

• He was a highly influential Protestant Preacher that led the Scottish Reformation in some of its darkest hours, and through his actions, molded the fate of Scotland and its Church. 

Mary Queen of Scots

• A devout Roman Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots (originally known as Mary Stuart of Stewart) was born December 8, 1542, in Scotland, and died February 8, 1578, in England. She was the Queen of Scotland (1542-1567) and Queen Consort of France (1559-1560). She also had Tudor blood in her from Grandmother, a sister of Henry VIII. 

• She grew up in France from the age of 5, making her deemed a foreign Queen of an alien religion in Scotland. Although faced with scrutiny and backlash by the likes of John Knox, with the aid of her half-brother (James, Earl of Moray) and her policy of religious toleration, her first years as Queen went well. Mary’s second marriage to her cousin Henry Stewart, Earl of Darnley (July 1565) began her path to self-destruction. She gave birth to their son James in June 1566, and in 1557, Darnley died in an explosion. She then married Bothwell, the chief suspect of her former husband’s murder. Bothwell and Mary were separated on June 15, 1567, and she was deposed in favor of her son James. She was exiled to Loch Leven, but with momentary freedom taken from her at the battle of Langside, she fled to England where she was held by Elizabeth I for 18 years in various prisons. Her half-brother Moray became Regent of Scotland. In 1586, a plot to assassinate Elizabeth I and set Mary as the Queen of England for a Catholic Revolution was discovered, and Elizabeth I realized that her rule would be constantly threatened if she did not execute Mary. She was executed in 1587. 

• She was born December 8, 1542, and died February 8, 1578. She became the Queen of Scotland in 1542.  

• She was the Queen of Scotland but grew up in France. She lived the last 18 years of her life in England, eventually dying at Elizabeth I’s order. 

• Her life posed a threat to Elizabeth I’s rule, and she was a figure of hope for Catholics in both England and Scotland. With her death, hope for a return to Catholicism died as well. 

Sir Francis Drake

• He was an English Admiral and explorer that was born circa 1540-43 and died January 28, 1569, (on sea) off Panama.  

• He was involved in the slave trade, and after his second voyage to the West Indies failed disastrously, he returned to England in command of the Judith. He had been noticed by Elizabeth I and was given a privateering commission. He set sail to America in 1572 on the Golden Hind, and while his attack of the West Indie town Nombre de Dios was a failure, he managed to secure a great deal of plunder by attacking a silver-bearing mule train. In 1577 he was chosen to lead an expedition for Elizabeth I. He passed through the Strait of Magellan, and pillaged and plundered the coasts of South America. He plundered precious stones, pearls, bars of gold and silver, and Spanish coinage. He went to the Philippines after and bought spices from a local Sultan. On September 26, 1580, with treasures and spices he landed in Plymouth Harbour, making his fortune. Queen Elizabeth went aboard his ship and knighted him. He was made mayor of Plymouth in 1581. In 1587 he stormed the Spanish Harbour of Cadiz (with 30 ships and approval from Queen Elizabeth I in 1586) and destroyed vessels and thousands of tons of supplies that had been destined for the armada.  

• He was born around the years of 1540-43. He attacked Nombre de Dios in 1572. He led an expedition for Queen Elizabeth I in 1577, and upon his return was made a knight and Mayor of Plymouth (1581). He attacked the Spanish harbor of Cadiz in 1587. 

• He was born in England but spent much of his youth in Plymouth. He circumnavigated the world, attacking and plundering all over South America. He was in the service of the Royal crown. 

• He brought great damage to the Spanish empire and acquired massive amounts of wealth from his plunder of the Spanish and his subsequent buying and selling of spices. He also is seen as a great figure due to his circumnavigation of the world. Contemporarily, he is known well from the Uncharted Game series.  

Albrecht of Wallenstein

• a Bohemian military leader and statesman who fought on the Catholic side during the Thirty Years’ War. He was the supreme commander of the Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II, thus solidifying his position as a major figure during this conflict.

• Wallenstein’s years of service lasted from 1604 to 1634, in which he participated in several crucial battles that took place in White Mountain (Bohemia), Dessau (Germany), and the Baltic Sea.

• The fact that, regardless of his successes, Wallenstein was released from service on account of Ferdinand fearing his ambitions goes to show the trend in the Thirty Years’ War becoming centered around political disputes, not religious ones. 

William of Orange

• was the sovereign Prince of Orange since birth. He was a devout Protestant, which caused him to participate in wars against the Catholic French King Louis XIV and allowed him to seize power from his Catholic father-in-law King James, who was widely unpopular with the primarily Protestant English population.

• William’s reign lasted from 1689 to 1702, and he was King of England, Ireland, and Scotland.

• The major impact of William’s reign was the ending of conflict between the English Crown and Parliament that had lasted since the accession of James I in 1603, but was settled during William’s reign by the Bill of Rights 1689, the Triennial Act 1964, and the Act of Settlement of 1701, all of which balanced the division of powers between Parliament and the King.  

Teresa of Avila

• was a Spanish nun, one of the great mystics and religious women of the Roman Catholic Church, and the author of spiritual classics.

• She originated the Carmelite Reform, which restored and emphasized the austerity and contemplative character of the Carmelite (one of the four great mendicant orders of the Roman Catholic Church) lifestyle.

• She managed the reform from 1558 to her death in 1582 by establishing convents in various parts of Spain.

• Her philosophy and spiritual writing fueled the religious fervor that drove Spanish Catholics into the Thirty Year’s War. 

Ferdinand II

• the Holy Roman Emperor during the Thirty Years’ War.

• He was the leading champion of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, which attempted to restore the Catholic Church’s reputation by purging itself of the abuses that had paved the way for the Protestant Reformation, and of absolutist rule.

• His reign lasted from 1619 to 1637, with Bohemia, Austria, and Hungary being the main areas under his purview.

• By promoting the Counter-Reformation, Ferdinand II set the course of Austrian Habsburg policy for the next century, focusing it on the maintenance of traditional values and customs (ex: feudalism) and continued reform and support for the Catholic Church.  

Gustavus Aldophus II

• Swedish King during the Thirty Years’ War.

• He was responsible for the resolution of three foreign wars (with Russia, Poland, and Denmark) and a major constitutional crisis.

• His reign lasted from 1611 to 1632 and his center of operations (especially for internal reforms) resided in Stockholm, Sweden.

• Gustavus Adolphus II laid the foundations of the modern Swedish state and transformed it into a major European power that could compete with the likes of France, Spain, and England. 

Peace of Westphalia

• European settlement which ended the Eighty Years’ War between Spain and Netherlands, as well as the German phase of the Thirty Years’ War.

• This peace settlement gave territory to Sweden, France, and their allies; confirmed the Peace of Augsburg, which had been repealed by Ferdinand II; and extended the Peace of Augsburg’s religion tolerance to the Calvinist Church.

• It was signed between May and October of 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster.

• The Peace of Westphalia by and large brought to an end the last major religious conflict in Europe (those that followed were centered around political differences and issues).

Edict of Nantes

• was a law put forth in France that accompanied the French King’s conversion from Huguenot Calvinism to Roman Catholicism.

• The edict granted large measures of religious liberty to France’s Protestant population while also restoring Catholicism in all areas where Catholic practice and worship had been interrupted by conflicts with Protestants.

• The Edict of Nantes was passed on April 13, 1598, by Henry IV of France.

• This edict ended the violent Wars of Religion between Catholics and Huguenots, which had broken out in France in 1562.