World History Overview: Key Civilizations and Events

Byzantine Empire

Eastern half of the Roman Empire; capital = Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul).

Justinian I

Tried to reconquer lost Roman territories; built the Hagia Sophia and created Justinian's Code.

Hagia Sophia

Massive church built by Justinian I.

Justinian's Code

Simplified Roman laws that influenced modern law.

Eastern Orthodox Christianity

Religion practiced in the Byzantine Empire; split from Roman Catholic Church in 1054 CE.

Great Schism

The split of the Christian Church in 1054 CE into Roman Catholic Church (West) and Eastern Orthodox Church (East).

Decline of the Byzantine Empire

Weakened by internal conflict, Crusades, and attacks; fell in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks.

Muhammad

Founder of Islam, born in Mecca around 570 CE; received revelations from Allah via the angel Gabriel.

Qur'an

Sacred book of Islam.

Five Pillars of Islam

Core beliefs including Shahada, Salat, Zakat, Sawm, and Hajj.

Shahada

Faith in one God and Muhammad as His prophet.

Salat

Prayer 5 times daily facing Mecca.

Zakat

Charity to the poor.

Sawm

Fasting during Ramadan.

Hajj

Pilgrimage to Mecca at least once if able.

Spread of Islam

Rapid expansion after Muhammad's death in 632 CE through military conquests, trade, and missionaries.

Christianity

Founded ~1st century CE in Judea based on the teachings of Jesus Christ; holy book is the Bible.

Judaism

One of the oldest monotheistic religions; holy book is the Torah; originated with Abraham.

Hinduism

Originated in India; oldest major religion with polytheistic elements but one supreme spirit (Brahman).

Buddhism

Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) in 6th century BCE in India; core idea is to escape suffering.

Confucianism

Philosophy from Confucius focusing on social harmony, respect for elders, and moral behavior.

Daoism (Taoism)

Chinese philosophy/religion founded by Laozi focusing on living in harmony with the Dao (the Way).

Geographic Overview of Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa includes major kingdoms/empires; key features include Sahara Desert, Sahel, Niger River, and Savanna.

Ghana Empire

Located in West Africa, known for gold-salt trade; capital was Koumbi Saleh.

Mali Empire

Rose after Ghana's decline around 1230-1600 CE.

Sundiata Keita

Founder of the Mali Empire who united the people of Mali.

Mansa Musa

Richest and most famous ruler of Mali (r. 1312-1337); went on a pilgrimage to Mecca.

Timbuktu

Developed as a center of Islamic learning after Mansa Musa brought back Islamic scholars and books.

Economy of Mali

Based on gold, salt, agriculture, and trade.

Decline of Mali Empire

Occurred after Mansa Musa's death due to weak rulers and attacks from neighboring kingdoms.

Songhai Empire

Largest of the West African empires (c. 1400-1600 CE) with capital at Gao.

Askia Muhammad

Key leader of the Songhai Empire who reformed government and promoted Islamic education.

Trade in Songhai Empire

Controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt.

Fall of Songhai Empire

Defeated by Moroccan invaders with advanced weapons (guns).

Aksum (Axum)

Located in East Africa (modern Ethiopia and Eritrea); adopted Christianity in the 300s CE.

Key port of Aksum

Adulis, which facilitated trade with Rome, India, and Arabia.

Decline of Aksum

Caused by Muslim invasions, soil erosion, and over-farming.

Great Zimbabwe

Located in Southeastern Africa (modern Zimbabwe); known for massive stone ruins.

Economy of Great Zimbabwe

Based on cattle herding, farming, and gold trade with Swahili Coast.

Decline of Great Zimbabwe

Likely due to overuse of land, exhaustion of resources, and decline in trade.

Swahili City-States

Located along the East African coast; traded gold, ivory, slaves, and spices.

Language of Swahili City-States

Spoke Swahili, a mix of Bantu and Arabic.

Trans-Saharan Trade

Connected West Africa with North Africa and the Middle East using caravans.

Main goods of Trans-Saharan Trade

Gold, salt, ivory, and slaves.

Indian Ocean Trade

Linked East Africa with Asia and the Middle East, aided by monsoon winds.

Spread of Islam in Africa

Occurred through trade and education, particularly in cities like Timbuktu.

Indigenous African religions

Polytheistic, centered on nature, ancestors, and spirits.

Christianity in Africa

Spread primarily in Aksum and later Ethiopia, where the Ethiopian Church remains Christian.

Griots

Storytellers in African culture who preserved history through oral tradition.

Art in African Kingdoms

Included bronze sculpture, textiles, and wood carvings.

Architecture in African Kingdoms

Featured Great Zimbabwe ruins and mosques in Timbuktu, blending Islamic and African styles.

Neo-Confucianism

philosophy combining Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism.

Foot binding

practice that limited women's mobility but was seen as elegant.

Scholar-gentry class

civil servants in Chinese society.

Silk Road

trade route connecting China with the Middle East and Europe.

Mongols

Nomadic warriors from the steppes of Central Asia.

Genghis Khan

united the Mongols in the early 1200s and created the largest contiguous empire in history.

Yuan Dynasty

Mongol rule in China from 1279 to 1368 CE.

Kublai Khan

founded the Yuan Dynasty and moved the capital to Beijing.

Pax Mongolica

period of relative peace and stability under Mongol rule (1200s-1300s).

Champa rice

fast-growing rice from Vietnam that increased food supply.

Civil service exam

Confucian-based test for government jobs.

Marco Polo

Venetian trader who visited Yuan China and wrote about it.

Aztec

militaristic empire in Mesoamerica known for massive human sacrifice.

Maya

civilization in the Yucatán Peninsula known for hieroglyphic writing and pyramids.

Inca Empire

largest empire in pre-Columbian Americas, known for centralized government and quipu.

Chinampas

floating gardens used by the Aztec for agriculture.

Machu Picchu

religious center of the Inca Empire.

Tenochtitlán

capital of the Aztec Empire, built on a lake.

Black Death

plague that spread from Asia to Europe during the Mongol rule.

Quipu

knotted cords used by the Inca for record keeping.

Hernán Cortés

Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec Empire in 1521.

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire in 1533.

Nomadic warriors

people who move from place to place rather than settling permanently.

Mississippian Culture

Known for mound building (e.g., Cahokia).

Ancestral Puebloans (Anasazi)

Lived in the Southwest; built cliff dwellings (e.g., Mesa Verde).

Trade and agriculture

Varied by region—coastal tribes fished, plains tribes hunted buffalo, etc.

Key Themes in Pre-Columbian America

No large domesticated animals (except llamas in the Andes).

Ottoman Empire

Founded in the late 1200s by Osman I in Anatolia (modern Turkey).

Fall of Constantinople

Conquered in 1453 under Mehmed II, ending the Byzantine Empire.

Istanbul

Renamed Constantinople after its conquest.

Ottoman Empire Expansion

By 1600, controlled Southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.

Mehmed II (The Conqueror)

Took Constantinople in 1453 using gunpowder and cannons.

Suleiman the Magnificent

Empire reached its height under him; nicknamed 'Lawgiver' for creating a fair legal code.

Devshirme system

Christian boys from the Balkans were taken, converted to Islam, and trained as Janissaries and government officials.

Millet system

Allowed religious communities (Christians, Jews) to govern themselves under their own laws, as long as they paid taxes and were loyal.

Ottoman Religion

The Ottomans were Sunni Muslims.

Ottoman Religious Tolerance

Known for religious tolerance (especially under the millet system).

Ottoman Architecture

Known for grand mosques (e.g., Süleymaniye Mosque).

Ottoman Cultural Influences

Blended Islamic, Persian, Byzantine, and Turkic cultural influences.

Ottoman Economy

Strategic location connected Europe, Asia, and Africa; controlled Silk Road and Mediterranean trade routes.

Decline of the Ottoman Empire

Slow decline began in the late 1600s due to military defeats in Europe, corruption, and weak sultans.

Janissaries

Ottoman elite infantry from the devshirme system.

1453

Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans.

Martin Luther

Posted 95 Theses criticizing indulgences in 1517.

Lutheranism

Formed from Martin Luther's beliefs of salvation by faith alone and the Bible as the only authority.

John Calvin

Beliefs included predestination and emphasis on hard work and discipline.

Calvinists

Followers of John Calvin; known as Huguenots in France.

King Henry VIII

Broke from the Catholic Church when the Pope wouldn't annul his marriage.

Church of England

Created by King Henry VIII in 1534, maintaining many Catholic traditions but rejecting the Pope's authority.