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Medical Sociology

The study of how people manage health, illness, disease, and healthcare; includes doctor-patient relationships and cultural attitudes toward wellness.

Epidemiology

The study of the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases.

Demography

The study of population patterns such as fertility, mortality, and migration.

Social Epidemiology

The study of how social factors (income, networks, norms) shape health outcomes.

Functionalist View of Health

Health supports social stability; sickness is a sanctioned form of deviance with rights and responsibilities.

Conflict View of Health

Health is shaped by inequality; capitalism commodifies healthcare and limits access.

Medicalization

Turning normal life experiences into medical conditions requiring treatment.

Underinsured

People who spend at least 10% of income (or 5% if low income) on healthcare not covered by insurance.

Health Inequities

Unjust and avoidable differences in health between groups.

Health Disparities

Preventable differences in disease, injury, or opportunities among groups.

Social Determinants of Health

Nonmedical conditions of life (education, housing, jobs, neighborhood) that affect health.

Stigmatization of Illness

When certain illnesses lead to shame, discrimination, or being socially avoided.

Precariously Employed

Workers who cannot afford to miss work and lack stable income or benefits.

Social Gerontology

The sociological study of aging.

Life Course

The sequence of predictable life events from birth to death.

Life Expectancy

The average number of years a newborn is expected to live.

Cohort

A group sharing a demographic trait (e.g., Baby Boomers).

Disengagement Theory

Older adults withdraw from social roles to pass them to younger people.

Activity Theory

Staying active in old age increases well-being.

Continuity Theory

Older adults maintain earlier-life habits and patterns.

Ageism

Discrimination based on age.

Elder Abuse

A caretaker intentionally harms or neglects an older adult.

Elder Invisibility

When older adults feel overlooked or treated as irrelevant.

Thanatology

The study of death and dying.

Medicalization of Grief

Treating grief as a medical disorder instead of a normal human reaction.

Disenfranchised Grief

Grief that society does not recognize or validate.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A false belief that becomes true because of the behavior it inspires.

Saints

Upper-middle-class boys whose deviance was ignored due to privilege, demeanor, and visibility.

Roughnecks

Working-class boys labeled as troublemakers and policed more harshly.

Visibility

How easily authorities can observe one's deviance.

Demeanor

Outward behavior; Saints acted polite, Roughnecks acted defiant.

Differential Association Theory

Deviance is learned through interactions with deviant peers.

Control Theory

People conform when they have strong social bonds.

Attachment

Wanting approval from others.

Commitment

What someone risks losing if they break rules.

Involvement

Participation in socially approved activities.

Belief

Agreement with societal norms and values.

Selective Perception

Authorities notice and punish certain groups more based on class or bias.

Deviance

Violation of cultural, social, or legal norms.

Crime

An act that violates the law.

Mala in Se

Acts inherently evil (murder, assault).

Mala Prohibita

Acts criminal only because the law defines them as such.

Functionalist View of Deviance

Deviance is necessary; clarifies norms, strengthens bonds, promotes change.

Mechanical Solidarity

Simple societies with shared values; low tolerance for deviance.

Organic Solidarity

Complex societies with interdependence; more tolerance for deviance.

Anomie

A state of normlessness and social instability.

Strain Theory

Deviance occurs when society's goals cannot be achieved through legitimate means.

Conformity

Accept goals and accept means.

Innovation

Accept goals but use illegitimate means.

Ritualism

Reject goals but follow rules.

Retreatism

Reject both goals and means.

Rebellion

Reject and replace goals and means.

Social Control

Mechanisms that enforce norms (formal and informal).

White-Collar Crime

Crimes committed by high-status individuals during their occupation.

Power Elite

Small group controlling political, military, and corporate power.

Labeling Theory

Deviance is a label society assigns, not the act itself.

Primary Deviance

First act of rule-breaking that doesn't yet define identity.

Secondary Deviance

When someone accepts a deviant label as their identity.

Master Status

The dominant identity a person is known by.

Stigma

A socially discrediting attribute that leads to a spoiled identity.

Falsely Accused

Labeled deviant despite not breaking rules.

Secret Deviant

Breaks rules but isn't caught.

Race

A socially constructed classification based on perceived physical traits.

Ethnicity

Shared cultural traits such as language, religion, and traditions.

Social Construction of Race

The idea that race has no biological basis; meanings change over time.

Color Line (Du Bois)

The division between white and non-white people caused by systemic racism.

Colorism

Preference for lighter skin tones within racial groups.

Racialization

Assigning racial meaning to groups or practices previously not considered racial.

Racial Formation Theory

Race is created and shaped by social, political, and economic forces.

Genocide

The intentional destruction of a group.

Expulsion

Forcing a group to leave an area or country.

Status Anxiety

Fear of losing social position, often leading to prejudice.

Racial Threat Theory

As minority populations grow, dominant groups increase control and repression.

Segregation

Physical and social separation of groups; can be legal (de jure) or informal (de facto).

Assimilation

Minority groups adopting the dominant culture.

Pluralism

A 'salad bowl' where groups maintain distinct cultures.

Amalgamation

The 'melting pot' where groups blend into a new culture.

Intersection Theory

Overlapping identities (race, gender, class) shape lived experiences.

Cultures of Prejudice

Prejudice embedded in cultural practices and everyday life.

Empirical Evidence

Data gathered through observation or scientific methods.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about relationships between variables.

Independent Variable

What the researcher manipulates.

Dependent Variable

What is measured in response.

Nonreactive Research

Research that avoids influencing subjects' behavior.

Hawthorne Effect

When people change behavior because they know they're being observed.

Reliability

The consistency of research results when replicated.

Validity

Whether a study accurately measures what it claims.

Face Validity

The measure appears to assess what it should.

Criterion Validity

The measure predicts an outcome it should logically predict.

Construct Validity

The measure accurately represents the theoretical concept.

Value Neutrality

Remaining unbiased and impartial during research.

Operational Definition

The exact measurable steps defining a concept in a study.

Quantitative Research

Numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative Research

Non-numerical data about experiences, meanings, or interactions.

Mixed Methods

Using both quantitative and qualitative methods.

Survey

Questionnaire measuring attitudes or behaviors.

Interview

One-on-one questioning.

Focus Group

Guided group discussion collecting perceptions.

Field Research

Observing people in natural settings.

Participant Observation

Researcher joins a group to observe it.