Exam 5 review

what is real time PCR

What is qualitative PCR

Real time PCR-check with florescent each cycle

We are going to do the blue light at the end so this is a qualitative PCR

Saturated

• found where

• what are they at room temperature and does what

unsaturated

• found where?

• what are they in room temperature?

hydrogenated fat

• what is hydrogenation?

• where are these found?

lipids are fat, there are different type of fats:

• Saturated Fat - Found in animal products like butter, cheese, and meat. These fats are solid at room temperature and can raise cholesterol levels.

• Unsaturated Fat - Found in plant-based oils, nuts, and fish. These fats are liquid at room temperature and are considered healthier for the heart.

• Hydrogenated Fat (Trans Fat) - Created through a process called hydrogenation, which turns liquid oils into solid fats. These are often found in processed foods and can be harmful to heart health.

What are all of these?

• Saturated

  • what about the saturated fat?

• unsaturated

  • what about unsaturated fat?

• hydrogenated fat

  • what about these?

lipids are fat, there are different type of fats:

• Saturated fats: All carbon atoms are fully bonded to hydrogen, with no double bonds.

• Unsaturated fats: Contain at least one double bond in their structure.

Hydrogenated fats (Trans fats): These fats have added hydrogen, changing their structure in a way that makes them harder for the body to process.

• Partially hydrogenated fats are even worse, as they create trans fats, which can increase the risk of health problems.

Lipids can be divided into two main types:

• what are the 2 main groups?

• what do they do?

• Do they work together. if so, what do they do?

Lipids can be divided into two main types:

• Triglycerides: These are the body's primary source of stored fat and energy.

• Cholesterol: This is essential for making hormones, vitamin D, and cell membranes.

These two types of lipids work together to form different fat-related structures and functions in the body, helping with energy storage, hormone production, and overall cell health!

Triglycerides and cholesterol work together to form different ???? in the body, including:

• define the question mark?????

• LDL stands for what and what does it transport?

• HDL stands for what ns what does it transport?

• VLDL stands for what and what does it transport?

Triglycerides and cholesterol work together to form different lipoproteins in the body, including:

• LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) - Transports fat to tissues but is associated with heart disease and atherosclerosis (plaque buildup in arteries).

• HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) - Often called "good cholesterol" because it helps remove excess fat (lipids) from the bloodstream and transports it to the liver for breakdown and disposal.

• VLDL (Very-Low-Density Lipoprotein) -

  • VLDL transports triglycerides from the small intestine to tissues for storage or energy use.

Total cholesterol includes what?

LDL can be what?

what do u have to measure to calculate LDL?

• what is formula to calculate LDL?

• when can’t we use this formula

Total cholesterol includes HDL, LDL, and other lipids.

• LDL can be calculated instead of directly measured, making it a cheaper option.

• To calculate LDL, you need measurements for total cholesterol, HDL, and triglycerides.

The LDL calculation formula is:

• LDL = Total Cholesterol - HDL - (Triglycerides / 5)

If triglycerides are over 400 mg/dL, this formula no longer works, and LDL must be directly measured, which is a much more expensive test.

For healthy LDL levels, less than 100 mg/dL is ideal. However, people with hyperlipidemia can have LDL levels in the hundreds, which increases the risk of heart disease.

Triglycerides and cholesterol work together to form different lipoproteins in the body, including:

• LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein)….. all about LDL

• LDL transport what and what is it associated with?

• what can increase LDL levels?

• what other factors can affect LDL levels?

what is linked to high LDL levels?

• what medication is used to treat above?

Triglycerides and cholesterol work together to form different lipoproteins in the body, including:

• LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) - Transports fat to tissues but is associated with heart disease and atherosclerosis (plaque buildup in arteries).

• Eating high-fat foods can increase LDL levels, leading to a higher risk of heart disease.

• Some people have high LDL even if they eat healthy, due to factors like age, body composition, and genetics.

Hyperlipidemia Type 5 is a genetic condition linked to high LDL levels.

• Patients with this condition are often treated with a medication called statin, which helps lower LDL by reducing its production.

Triglycerides and cholesterol work together to form different lipoproteins in the body, including:

• HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein).. all about HDL

• HDL is often called what?

• what does HDL do?

• what percent of HDL is protein?

Triglycerides and cholesterol work together to form different lipoproteins in the body, including::

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) - Often called "good cholesterol" because it helps remove excess fat (lipids) from the bloodstream and transports it to the liver for breakdown and disposal.

• It helps reduce fat levels in the body.

• About 50% of HDL is protein, making it more dense compared to other lipoproteins.

Triglycerides and cholesterol work together to form different lipoproteins in the body, including:

• VLDL (Very-Low-Density Lipoprotein)… all about VLDL

• when u eat a cheeseburger u will see what in ur blood?

• VLDL transport what?

Triglycerides and cholesterol work together to form different lipoproteins in the body, including:

VLDL (Very-Low-Density Lipoprotein): The least dense lipoprotein.

• If you look at blood after eating something high in fat (like a cheeseburger), you may see fatty molecules floating-these are remnants of VLDL, including chylomicrons.

• VLDL transports triglycerides from the small intestine to tissues for storage or energy use.

After digestion, chylomicrons, LDL, and VLDL help move lipids from the small intestine to tissues, while HDL helps remove excess fat and sends it to the liver.

define lipoprotein

• LDL transport what, what are high levels associated with?

  • what does LDL deliver

• VLDL assist in what? and transport what?

  • VLDL delivers what?

• HDL does what?

  • what is HDL also known for?

Different lipoproteins help transport fats in the body:

• LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) - Transports cholesterol through the blood to various tissues. However, high levels of LDL are associated with heart disease and atherosclerosis (plaque buildup in arteries).

LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) mainly transports cholesterol to tissues, which is necessary for cell membranes and hormone production. However, excess LDL can lead to plaque buildup in arteries.

LDL delivers cholesterol,

• VLDL (Very-Low-Density Lipoprotein) and Chylomicrons - Assist in fat absorption from the small intestine and transport triglycerides to tissues.

VLDL (Very-Low-Density Lipoprotein) transports triglycerides from the liver and intestine to tissues where they can be used for energy or stored as fat.

VLDL delivers triglycerides,

• HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) - Helps remove excess fat from the blood and carries it to the liver for breakdown and disposal.

  • This is a good cholesterol

is fat bad for us?

• what does fat make up in our body?

Fat is not inherently bad for us-it plays a crucial role in our bodies. However, too much fat can be harmful.

• Fat is essential:

• Cell membranes are made up of cholesterol and lipids.

• Many hormones are cholesterol-based, meaning fat is necessary for hormone production.

• So fat is not bad, but excess fat can lead to health problems.

pancreas does what for fat?

• what does pancreas produce that breaks down what?

The pancreas plays a key role in fat digestion:

• It produces lipase, an enzyme that breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol, allowing the body to use them.

• In pancreatitis, lipase levels increase as it leaks into the bloodstream, disrupting fat metabolism.

HDL has what protein to fat and is it dense or no?

VLDL is what?

• HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) has more protein and less fat, making it denser than other lipoproteins.

• VLDL (Very-Low-Density Lipoprotein) has more fat and less protein, making it less dense compared to HDL.

what molecular technique are there… use that Numonics teacher taught u

what do they detect

Molecular technique

• Electrophoresis and there are differnet type of electrophoresis

• SNW

• DRP

Southern plot detect DNA

Norther plot detects RNA

Western plot detect protein

what does electrophoresis do?

Electrophoresis is a technique used to detect different types of molecules, including:

• DNA for genetic testing

• RNA for identifying viruses

• Proteins, such as enzymes like ALT (alanine aminotransferase)

ALT is found where and what is it?

During electrophoresis what happens?

what are anti-bodies? what are anti-gen?

Monoclonal antibodies are with? and use to detect what?

after running electrophoresis, what roles does the monoclonal anti-bodies paly?

What is another term related to monoclonal anti-bodies? and what does it due?

ALT is a protein enzyme found primarily in the liver. It plays a key role in metabolism, helping convert amino acids into energy.

During electrophoresis, an electric current is applied to a sample, allowing molecules to separate based on their size and charge.

Monoclonal antibodies are lab-made antibodies designed to bind very specifically to one type of antigen, making them useful for medical treatments and research

Monoclonal antibodies can be used to detect particular molecules.

• Antigens are like the "bad guys"—they are foreign substances (like bacteria, viruses, or toxins) that invade the body.

• Antibodies are the "good guy" immune system helpers

After running electrophoresis, monoclonal antibodies bind to specific targets, revealing bands on the gel, which help identify molecules.

Another term related to monoclonal antibodies refers to glycoproteins, which contain sugar chains.

• A condition called multiple myeloma leads to the production of monoclonal antibodies, which can be detected using electrophoresis.

What animals can we produced mono-clonal antibodies from that he talked about?

what hapten, define?

what is solid phase testing?

Scientists took a mouse that produced monoclonal antibodies, purified them, and replicated them in large quantities for use in electrophoresis.

Similarly, horses and cows produce a high number of antibodies. By inserting an antigen into their system, they generate specific antibodies. Blood is then collected from these animals, and the monoclonal antibodies are extracted for testing.

Hapten is a stimulating substance that triggers an immune response, helping in immunological reactions.

Another testing method is solid-phase testing, where beads coated with antibodies are used. If the target substance is present in a sample, it binds to the bead, allowing for detection.

• Hook effect aka what?

  • hook effect happens when

  • hook effect is common seen in what?

• what is western blot used for?

Hook effect (or prozone effect) happens when there are too many antigens in a sample, leading to oversaturation of binding sites on antibodies.

• At low antigen levels, the antibodies bind normally.

• However, excess antigen causes competitive binding, blocking itself and preventing proper detection.

  • This can make the test appear falsely negative, even though there is actually a high amount of antigen present.

• The hook effect is commonly seen in immunoassays, such as hormone assays, where extremely high hormone levels interfere with test results.

Western blot is used for detecting labeled antibodies, specifically targeting proteins.

• Western blot helps identify specific proteins within a sample by using antibodies that bind selectively to them.

• Wilsom disease happens due to?

  • how is it diagnosed

  • what forms due to Wilson disease

• Electrophoresis is used for what

  • what moves faster in electrophoresis?

  • what charge move quickly?

  • agarose gel is commonly used for what?

• specificity vs affinity?

Wilson Disease - A condition where copper builds up in the body due to improper elimination.

• It's diagnosed using serum plasma tests for copper levels.

• A Kayser-Fleischer ring (a copper-colored ring around the eyes) is a common symptom.

Electrophoresis - A lab technique used to separate molecules.

• Smaller fragments move faster through the gel.

• More charged molecules migrate more quickly to the appropriate side.

• Agarose gel is commonly used for DNA separation.

Specificity vs. Affinity in Immunology:

• Specificity is specific to one thing

• Affinity is how strong anti-body hold the anti-gen

• Mononucleosis is what

• avidity vs affinity

Mononucleosis and Autoimmune Disorders:

• Mono (infectious mononucleosis) can increase antigen affinity, influencing immune responses.

• Normally, B cells recognize antigens and selectively bind, but mono can force improper binding, leading to antibody production against self- antigens, which may contribute to autoimmune disorders.

Avidity (how much an antibody "wants" to bind).

Affinity: (how tightly an antibody binds to an antigen).

Hapten is what again?

Hook effect causes what again?

FISH does what?

Hapten • A substance that is capable of producing antibodie

Hook Effect • Causes false negatives

Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) • Used to analyze DNA in chromosomes

Hybridization assays?

There are three types of hybridization methods:

1. Liquid-phase

2. Solid-phase

3. In situ hybridization

Hybridization assays help identify DNA fragments with a specific gene or sequence. This process involves separating DNA strands and testing their ability to bind to a labeled probe with a matching sequence.

There are three types of hybridization methods:

1. Liquid-phase – Both the target DNA and probe are in liquid form, allowing fast binding.

2. Solid-phase – The target DNA is placed on a solid surface (like a membrane), making it easier to spot small genetic differences.

3. In situ hybridization – Probes are applied directly to cells, tissues, or chromosomes on a glass slide, helping locate DNA or mRNA within its natural environment.

Let me know if you need further simplification!