Psychology Research Methods and Perspectives Vocabulary Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering core concepts of psychological perspectives, scientific research methods, statistical measures, sampling procedures, and ethical standards.

Psychodynamic Perspective

A psychological perspective focusing on unconscious drives, desires, and early childhood experiences as primary influences on behavior and mental processes.

Behavioral Perspective

A psychological perspective emphasizing observable, measurable behavior and how it is learned through environmental conditioning.

Humanistic Perspective

A psychological perspective emphasizing human potential, self-actualization, free will, and personal growth.

Cognitive Perspective

A psychological perspective focusing on internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, problem-solving, and language.

Biological Perspective

A psychological perspective examining how brain structure, genetics, neurotransmitters, and physiological processes influence behavior and mental processes.

Evolutionary Perspective

A psychological perspective examining how natural selection and adapted traits influence human behavior and mental mechanisms over time.

Sociocultural Perspective

A psychological perspective analyzing how social environments, cultural context, and societal norms shape human thinking and behavior.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

An integrated psychological perspective considering biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors when analyzing behavior and mental processes.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in a way that confirms pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an outcome has occurred, that one would have foreseen or predicted it.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's knowledge, abilities, judgments, or predictions.

Empirical Evidence

Information acquired through direct observation, measurement, and systematic experimentation rather than intuition or opinion.

Scientific Method

A standardized process of testing ideas through observation, forming falsifiable hypotheses, gathering data, and drawing conclusions.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables derived from a theoretical framework.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A hypothesis framed in such a way that empirical observation and experimentation can potentially prove it false.

Operational Definitions

Precise procedures and measurement specifications used to define and quantify specific research variables.

Independent Variable

The factor in an experiment that is deliberately manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effect.

Dependent Variable

The outcome variable in an experiment that is measured to see if it changes in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

An extraneous factor other than the independent variable that might inadvertently influence experimental results, presenting a third variable problem.

Experimental Group

The group of participants in an experiment who receive the treatment or condition representing the independent variable.

Control Group

The group of participants in an experiment who do not receive the experimental treatment, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Random Assignment

The procedure of assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize pre-existing differences between groups.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results or behavioral changes caused by participant expectations alone rather than an active substance or condition.

Case Study

An in-depth observational research method examining a single individual or small group over an extended period.

Naturalistic Observation

A research technique of observing and recording subjects' behavior in their natural environment without intervention or manipulation.

Correlational Research

A statistical study measuring the degree of relationship between two or more naturally occurring variables without manipulating them directly.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure, represented as $r$, ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where two variables move in the same direction, both increasing or decreasing together.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where two variables move in opposite directions; as one variable increases, the other decreases.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots representing the values of two variables, where the slope suggests direction and the closeness of dots indicates correlation strength.

Meta-Analysis

A quantitative statistical technique that combines results from multiple independent scientific studies to determine an overall trend or effect.

Histogram

A bar graph representing the frequency distribution of continuous numerical data.

Central Tendency

Statistical measures, including mean, median, and mode, that summarize a dataset by identifying a central or typical value.

Regression Toward the Mean

The statistical phenomenon where extreme or unusual scores tend to move closer to the average when more data is collected.

Population

The entire group of individuals about whom researchers wish to draw conclusions.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the key demographic and statistical characteristics of the broader target population.

Random Sample

A selection method where every individual in a population has an equal chance of being selected for inclusion in a study.

Convenience Sampling

A non-probability sampling technique selecting participants based on their easy accessibility and proximity to the researcher.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that yields an unrepresentative sample, limiting the accurate generalization of research findings.

Generalization

The extent to which research findings obtained from a study sample can be accurately applied to the broader population.

Single-Blind vs. Double-Blind

In single-blind studies, participants are unaware of group assignments; in double-blind studies, both participants and experimenters remain unaware to prevent bias.

Experimenter Bias

A researcher's expectations or preferences unintentionally influencing outcome measurements or interactions with subjects.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of study participants to answer questions in a way that presents themselves favorably rather than truthfully.

Self-Report Bias

Flaws in survey or interview data resulting from participants misrepresenting their own attitudes, behaviors, or memories.

Qualitative Measures

Descriptive, non-numerical data-gathering methods, such as structured interviews, used to explore depth of individual experiences.

Quantitative Measures

Numerical data collection tools, such as Likert scales, designed for precise statistical measurement and comparison.

Peer Review & Replication

Peer review involves expert evaluation of scientific work prior to publication; replication is repeating a study to verify original findings.

Statistical Significance

A statistical determination assessing whether research results likely occurred due to experimental manipulation rather than random chance.

Institutional Review Board

An ethics committee responsible for reviewing, monitoring, and approving research proposals involving human subjects to protect their rights and welfare.

Human Ethical Research Standards

Core ethical principles requiring informed consent, protection from harm, confidentiality, minimized deception with confederates, and comprehensive debriefing.

Animal Research Ethical Standards

Rules ensuring humane housing, care, treatment, and minimization of discomfort or suffering when subjects are non-human animals.

Survey Technique

A self-report research method collecting stated attitudes, opinions, or behaviors from a targeted sample through questionnaires or interviews.

Wording Effect

Changes in survey responses caused by subtle alterations in the phrasing, framing, or order of questions.

The American Psychological Association (APA)

The primary professional organization representing psychology in the United States, establishing research, ethical, and writing guidelines.