WashU intro psych exam 2

Learning

-A relatively enduring change in behavior that arises from experience

-Behaviorism: school of psych associated with learning (two stimuli -> response)

Types of learning

-Classical conditioning

-Operant conditioning

Classical conditioning

-A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone

-Associating a sound with a movie

Ivan Pavlov

-Studied digestive secretions in dogs

-Dog managed to learn food was coming, whatever the stimulus = dogs could be conditioned to produce saliva

Steps in classical conditioning

1. Identify a reflexive (unlearned/unconditioned) response that is consistent and reliable

2. Identify a neutral stimulus

3. Pair neutral stimulus with unconditioned stimulus

4. Test for learned response

Dog test of classical conditioning

-Give peanut butter to a dog, peanut butter is UCS and leads to UCR

-Pill bottle is neutral stimulus

-Pair pill bottle with peanut butter

-Pill bottle makes dog start to salivate, pill bottle becomes CS, salivation becomes CR

General principles of classical conditioning

-Strongest when NS precedes UCS

-NS must occur in close proximity to UCS

-Requires many trials

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner)

-Little white rat was NS, Watson hit a steel bar with a hammer, sound was UCS, caused Little Albert to start crying (UCR)

-Little Albert eventually started crying when he saw the rat

Generalization

Exhibit a CR to a stimulus similar to the CS

Discrimination

-Flip side of generalization

-Differentiate between CS and other stimuli not paired with UCS

Extinguishing (undoing) a CR?

-Present CS alone (extinction)

-Spontaneous recovery: extinction has occurred, bring animal back again, present CS again, lot less weaker of a CR

Extinguishing a phobia

-Systematic desensitization

-Stimulus hierarchy: move up hierarchy as the situation gets more involved

Conditioned taste aversion

-Eat something, it makes you sick, never wanna eat it again

-NS: cream pie, UCS: stomach virus, UCR: throwing up

-Contrary to 2 general principles: requires many trials, NS and UCS have to occur in close time

Higher order (2nd order) conditioning

-Already conditioned an animal to the sound of a bell (example)

-Tack on a new NS, second CS leads to a CR

Operant conditioning

-Associated with B.F. Skinner

-"For every behavior that is emitted, there will be 1 of 2 possible consequences, the behavior will be reinforced or punished"

Positive reinforcement

Present stimulus, increase behavior

-Go to potty, get toy, potty use increases

Negative reinforcement

Remove stimulus, increase behavior

-Buckle seatbelt, ringing disappears, buckling increases

Positive punishment

Present stimulus, decrease behavior

-Drawing on table, spanking, drawing decreases

Negative punishment

Remove stimulus, decrease behavior

-Catch goldfish, take toy away, fishing decreases

Skinner box

Rat presses down on lever to release food

Continuous reinforcement

Every time a person emits a particular behavior, they get something

Partial reinforcement

Every once in a while you get something

4 schedules of partial reinforcement

-Interval: after a fixed period of time, variable schedule

-Ratio schedule: Fixed, variable

Examples of schedules of partial reinforcement

-Fixed interval: weekly paycheck

-Variable interval: pop quiz

-Fixed ratio: piece/factory work

-Variable ratio: slot machines

True or false: The number of responses over time is lower for ratio schedule than interval schedule

False, you can control how quickly you respond as opposed to waiting around for time

Shaping

-Based on successive approximations similar to the desired behavior, reward every time until the thing you are training gets to that behavior. (first time monkey touches spoon you reinforce, pick up spoon you reinforce, etc)

-Superstitious behavior: Due to timing of behavior, people may repeat if they think 2 things are related

E.C. Tolman

-Latent learning

-Learning vs. performance

Albert Bandura

-Observational learning (modeling)

-Children saw a live person or video of an adult beating up a plastic doll, when they are left alone they imitate the behavior the adult did

Memory

-Knowledge stored is memory

- Multi-store model of memory (old): sensory input -> sensory memory -> attention -> working (short term) memory -> encoding -> long term memory

Loss of info in different parts of memory

-Sensory memory: unattended info is quickly lost

-Working memory: unrehearsed info is quickly lost

-Long term: some info is lost over time

-Function, capacity, duration

Sensory memory

-For a brief period of time, sensory input is held in a sensory store

-Function: add to perception

--Iconic = visual sensory memory, echoic = auditory sensory memory

-Capacity: large

-Duration: very brief (iconic = .25 seconds, echoic 2-3 seconds)

Working (short-term) memory

-Function: mental workplace

-Capacity: limited to 7 +/- 2 items (chunking enables more than that)

-Duration: very brief without rehearsal

Long-term memory

-Function: maintain info for extended time

-Capacity: theoretically unlimited

-Duration: prolonged

Encoding

-Rote rehearsal: repeating item over and over

-Organization: imposing your own organizational structure

-Elaboration: take info, elaborate on it, relate it to pre-existing info

Levels of processing effect (encoding)

-Orthographic: visual features

-Phonological: sound

-Semantic: meaning

-Shallow processing -> deep processing (orthographic -> semantic)

Retrieval

Pulling info out of long term store

Encoding specificity principle

-Memory will be best when the encoding context matches the retrieval context

--Learn info under water? Retrieve info better under water

--Mood dependent effects: happy mood when encoded, retrieve better in same mood

Testing effect

-Retrieval practice strengthens long term retention

--Study (S) Test (T), each group is tested later (SSSS, SSST, STTT)

---STTT better long term memory, SSSS better short term

Special retrieving practice (S = study, R = retrieve)

S R R R R R

-Slowly space out retrieval practice

Long term memory

-Memory -> Explicit memory (declarative, conscious) -> Episodic memroy (own experiences) or Semantic memory (word meanings, general knowledge)

OR

-Memory -> implict memory (non-declarative, unconscious)

Amnesia

-Retrograde amnesia: can't remember info prior to trauma

-Anterograde: can't form new memories after trauma

-HM revisited: anterograde amnesia, no deficits

--Mirror drawing task (look at hand in mirror to draw): HM got better over a couple of days

Brad Zupp (speaker, memory champion)

Translate question or thing to a picture, translate answer to picture, connect them

Misinformation experiments

-Event -> misleading suggestion -> test event memory

-Leading questions can influence memory of initial event

-Has implications for eyewitness interviews

Traffic accident video (misinformation experiment)

-How fast were the cars going when they _____ each other? (some had "contacted" in blank, others had "hit," "collided," or "smashed."

-Wording changes memory (seeing accident as more violent

Target-absent lineup

-Problem: assuming the target is present (people will pick "closest match")

-"confirmation" can inflate confidence

-Subtle/unconscious cues from interviewers

-All could lead to wrongful convinctions

Innocence project

- >300 cases exonerated due to DNA evidence

-- 70% of these due to faulty eyewitness testimony

--Eyewitness confidence in court is convincing to juries, but are misleading

--High confidence inital ID is reliable, low confidence initial ID = not

--Post ID feedback can inflate confidence without increasing accuracy

Recommendations for eyewitness testing

-Only one suspect per lineup

-Suspect should not stand out in lineup

-Say that offender may not be in lineup

- Double-blind testing

-Collect confidence statement at time of identification

Reconstructive memory: flashbulb memories

-Vivid, detailed memory for significant events (often high confidence)

-Memory inconsistencies are fairly normal

-Little relationship between confidence and accuracy

-Flashbulb memories: consequence of reconstructive remembering

Downfalls of flashbulb memories

-Memory becomes labile (subject to change)

--time slice confusions

--Fit into narrative script (assuming someone was there)

--Error repetition

-Distinct from memories from first-hand experience

Thinking and understanding

-Basic process underlying reasoning: previously stored info in long term memory -> new info -> interpretation

Reasoning by analogy

-Scientific: comparing a human to a computer

-Judicial: precedent, look at prior cases

-Political: compare someone running for office to someone who was already in office

-Raven's progressive matrices test

Logical reasoning

-Inductive: reasoning from specific to general (ie: guessing general rule of math equation)

-Deductive: reasoning from general to specific

Biases

-Availability bias

-Confirmation bias

-Representativeness bias

-Anchoring effect

-Framing

-Functional fixedness

Availability bias

-causes people to overestimate the probability of events associated with memorable or vivid occurrences

Confirmation bias

-Tend to get info from sources that confirm our views

-Tend to seek out those sources

-Tend to be friends with people who have similar views

Representativeness bias

-Tryint to estimate the likelihood of an event based on an existing prototype that we have

Anchoring effect

Tend to be biased by the initial info we hear

Framing

How someone presents (frames) the problem or info, you get different estimates from people

Functional fixedness

When solving problems, it's hard for peope to truly think outside of the box as they tend to have a "functional fixedness" by seeing things as not part of the solution and for just having one function

Sir Francis Galton (intelligence testing)

-Intelligence is composed of multiple dimensions

-Related to mental speed, muscular strength, head size, perceptual differences

-thought intelligence was inherited with genetics

Simon and Binet (intelligence testing)

-Distinguished between mental and chronological age

-Wanted to predict if children would be academically successful or not

Lewis Terman

-Stanford-Binet test of intelligence

-IQ

William Stern

-Came up with first calculation of IQ (mental age/chronological age x 100)

-Works well for only children, not used anymore

Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS)

-Currently at WAIS 4

-Also a scale for children (WISC)

-Has verbal knowledge tests, reasoning tests, perceptual tests, are timed

Spearman's theory of intelligence

-Single factor, not multiple dimensions

-Low g to high g

Cattell

-Crystallized intelligence

-Fluid intelligence

Crystallized intelligence

-General knowledge

-verbal knowledge

-vocab

-based on experience and education

-increases with age

Fluid intelligence

-Reasoning

-Solve for new info

-mental speed

-tends to decline with age

-Example is Raven's progressive matrices test

Sternberg's triarchic theory

-Analytic: ability to reason, test taking, academic intelligence

-Creative: Extremely creative

-Practical: street smarts, knowing how to get things done

Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences

- Verbal-linguistic

- Logical-mathematical

- Visual-spatial

- Musical-rhythmic

and more

Current conceptualizations about intelligence

-Mental speed

-Working memory capacity

-Fluid intelligence

-Adaptation to novelty

-Mental self-regulation

Nature vs Nurture (Intelligence)

Both sides can be used for correlation among identical and fraternal twins

Motivation

-Factors that activate behavior

-Directed towards a goal

-Internal vs external

Regulatory drives (motivation)

-State based on internal physiological need

-Necessary and promotes survival

-Homeostasis (keeping a steady state)

-Examples: hunger, thirst, oxygen, sleep

Hunger Internal factors (regulatory drives and motivation)

-Brain regions: hypothalamus important for appetite satiation (suppression)

-Hormones: Peptide YY (PYY), important for appetite surpression

Peptide YY (PYY, internal factor of hunger)

-Sharper increase for lean group of people as compared to obese group, obese groups has a lower base line of hormone

External factors of hunger (regulatory drives and motivation)

-Learned behaviors

-Food cues

-Social interaction

-Culture

Non-regulatory drives (motivation)

-No internal physiological need

-Not necessary for survival

-Examples: getting a degree, social, curiosity

Olds and Milner (reward)

Found that certain areas of the rat brain caused the rat to press lever to receive stimulation

Human brain & reward

Two components: wanting vs liking

Liking (human brain & reward)

-Pleasure when we get that reward

-Based on experience

-After reward is received

-Consumption

-Endorphins, affects consumption (not working)

Wanting (human brain & reward)

-Desire to obtain reward (craving)

-Before reward is received

-Work for reward

-Dopamine, affects working but not consumption

Emotion components

-Subjective feeling

-Behavioral expression

-Physiological response

Basic universal emotions

-Happiness

-Surprise

-Anger

-Scared

-Disgust

-Sad

Paul Ekman

-Studied emotion

-Looked at facial expression

- Cross-cultural results

-Blind babies still showed emotion

-Emotions are not learned

Common sense (theory of emotion)

-See some stimulus, then we react to it (see something, act in fear response, then have subjective experience)

--I feel afraid cuz my heart is pounding

Cannon-Bard theory (theory of emotion)

See some stimulus, body response and subjective experience happen at the same time (the dog makes me afraid and my heart pounds)

James-Lange theory (theory of emotion)

See some stimulus, then body response, then we have subjective experience (I feel afraid cuz my heart is pounding)

Schacter and Singer (1962)

-Brought about the two factory theory

-uninformed participants experienced physiological but didn't know why

-Adopted emotion of context

Two factor theory of emotion

Stimulus is presented, then body response, then interpretation, then subjective experience (my pounding heart means I'm afraid cuz I interpret the situation as dangerous)

Pencil study (facial feedback)

-Put pencil between your lips

-Put it between your teeth and don't smile, then do a fake smile, then a real smile

Facial feedback

-Just by moving the muscles in our face, the movement of those facial muscles sends signals to the brain to interpret that emotion

-Drives physiology

Microexpressions (Ekman)

Little, subtle, hard to notice, things that happen to our face that are not under our control

Emotion in the brain and the limbic system

-Lymbic system: important for processing info

-Two routes for processing info: fast (info -> thalamus -> amygdala) or slow (info -> thalamus -> visual cortex -> prefrontal cortex -> amygdala

Infantile reflexes (primitive reflexes that disappear as you get older)

-Breathing reflex

-Sucking reflexes

-Eye reflexes

Infant senses

-Vision

-Hearing

-Smell

-Taste

-Touch

-Senses develop more as the baby gets older

Sensory discrimination (infant senses)

-Preferential viewing paradigm (faces): infants tend to look at facelike image image twice as long as non facelike image

-Preferential viewing paradigm (habituation): Babies actually remember what you show them

Depth perception in infants

-Infants aren't born with depth perception

-Visual cliff paradigm: baby sits on checkered part, glass panel looks like a drop off, babies develop depth perception along with their environment

Stages of cognitive development (Piaget)

-Sensorimotor

-Preoperational

-Concrete ops

-Formal ops

Sensorimotor stage of cognitive development (Piaget)

-Birth to age 2

-Reflexes become coordinated

-Gain object permanence