Psychology Chapter 2 Review

Theory

Well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

Hypothesis

Tentative and testable statement (prediction) about the relationship between two or more variables

• Predicts how the world will behave if the theory is correct

• Usually and “if-then” statement

• Is falsifiable (capable of being shown to be incorrect)

Deductive Reasoning

• Conclusions are drawn based on a general premise

• Based on logical analysis

  • All things require energy to survive (premise)

  • Ducks are living things (premise)

  • Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (Conclusion)

Inductive Reasoning

• Conclusions are drawn from observations

• Based on empirical observations

  • You notice you sneeze whenever you are around cats (Observation)

  • Therefore, you assume you are allergic to cats (Conclusion)

Case Studies

Focus on one individual

• Extreme or unique psychological circumstances

Pro: Allows for in-depth exploration of the case

Con: Difficult to generalize to the larger population

Naturalistic Observation

Observation of behavior in its actual setting

• Eliminates feelings of performance anxiety 

• Allows researchers to study genuine behaviors

Observer Bias

Observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

• Establishment of clear criteria to observe helps eliminate observer bias

Survey

• A list of questions

• Can be delivered in a variety of ways

  • Paper and pencil

  • Electronically

  • Verbally

• Surveys gather huge amounts of data from a large population

Archival Research

• Uses past records or databases

  • Pro: Data are already obtained (less money/time required)

  • Con: Can’t change what information is available

Cross-Sectional Research

Comparing multiple groups at a single point in time

Longitudinal Research

• Multiple measurement from the same group of individuals over time

• Risks attrition

Attrition

Subjects dropping out of a study over time

Correlation

• Relationship between two or more variables

• When one variable changes alongside another

Correlation Coefficient

Represented by r

• Indicates the strength and direction of the correlation

• Number from -1 to 1

Positive Correlation

Two variable change in the same direction

• If one gets larger, so does the other

Negative Correlation

Two variables change in different directions

• If one gets larger, the other gets smaller

  • NOT the same as no correlation

Scatterplots

A graphical view of the strength and direction of correlations

Cause-and-effect Relationship

• Changes in one variable cause changes in the other

• Can be determined only via an experimental research design

Confounding Variable

• Outside factor that affects both variables of interest

• Gives the impression that changes in one variable cause changes in the other

Experimental Group

The participants that experience the manipulated variable

Control Group

Participants that do not experience the manipulated variable

• Serve as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study

Experimenter Bias

Researchers’ expectations skew the results

Participant Bias

Participants’ expectations skew the results

• Ex. Placebo effect

Single-blind

Participants do not know what group they’re in

Double-blind

Participants AND researchers who directly interact with the participants do not know who is in which group

Independent Variable

Something researchers may directly control in an experiment

Dependent Variable

Something you measure in a subject that may be influenced by the independent variable

Random Sampling

The “gold standard” in experiments

• Ensures representation and prevents bias

Reliable

A ____ study is consistent over time and across situations/raters

Valid

A ______ study is measuring what it truly intends to measure

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

For human subject research

• Check for informed consent

• Voluntary (not coerced) agreement to participate after knowing what they will do, the risks, the benefits, implications, and assurance of confidentiality

• Check for risks vs benefits to participant

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

• For animal subject research

• Check for humane treatment of animals