BIO 142 Lab practical I Study Guide

Identify Pituitary, Hypothalamus, Adrenal, Thyroid and Pancreas on the models.

Identify Adrenal glands under the microscope based on structures and arrangement (or on images). Also identify the layers and there secretions:

Layer	Hormones Secreted	Function
Zona Glomerulosa	Mineralocorticoids (mainly Aldosterone)	Regulates sodium, potassium, and blood pressure
Zona Fasciculata	Glucocorticoids (mainly Cortisol)	Increases blood glucose and helps the body respond to stress
Zona Reticularis	Androgens (e.g., DHEA)	Contributes to development of secondary sex characteristics

Identify thyroid glands under the microscope based on structures and arrangement (or on images)

Identify pituitary glands under the microscope based on structures and arrangement (or on images)

Identify parathytoid under the microscope based on structures and arrangement (or on images) and define the functions of parathyroid hormone. differentiate between parathyroid and thyroid under microscope

PTH raises blood calcium by:

1. Taking calcium from bone

2. Keeping calcium in the kidneys

3. Absorbing more calcium from the intestine

Identify pancreas under the microscope based on structures and arrangement (or on images)

Identify exocrine and endocrine parts of pancreas under the microscope.

Exocrine Pancreas (about 98–99% of the organ)

• Appears as darkly stained clusters of cells called acini.

• Cells are arranged around small ducts.

• Produces digestive enzymes (amylase, lipase, proteases) that are secreted into the small intestine through ducts.

• Makes up most of what you see on a slide

Endocrine Pancreas

• Appears as lighter-staining, round clusters of cells called the Islets of Langerhans.

• Scattered throughout the exocrine tissue.

• Richly supplied with blood vessels.

• Secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream:

  • Beta cells → Insulin

  • Alpha cells → Glucagon

  • Delta cells → Somatostatin

Define the functions of thyroid hormones, parathyroid hormone, Insulin, Glucagon and

Cortisol.

Hormone	Main Function
Thyroid Hormones (T3/T4)	Increase metabolism and support growth
PTH	Raise blood calcium
Insulin	Lower blood glucose
Glucagon	Raise blood glucose
Cortisol	Stress response; raises blood glucose

Define the hormones that control the blood calcium level (three hormones: Parathyroid,

Calcitonin and Calcitriol).

Hormone	Source	Effect on Blood Calcium
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)	Parathyroid glands	Raises blood calcium levels
Calcitonin	Thyroid gland (C cells)	Lowers blood calcium levels
Calcitriol (active vitamin D)	Produced by kidneys from vitamin D	Raises blood calcium levels

Define the hemoglobin content of blood and name the method for measuring of hemoglobin.

Group	Hemoglobin Level (g/dL)
Average	15 g/dL
Males	14–18 g/dL
Females	12–16 g/dL
Newborn Babies	17–23 g/dL

(Tallquist method).

Define the method performed in the lab for determining the ABO and Rh blood groups.

agglutination

1. Place blood samples on a slide.

2. Add Anti-A, Anti-B, and Anti-Rh sera to separate samples.

3. Look for agglutination (clumping).

4. Determine blood type:

   • Clumping with Anti-A → Type A

   • Clumping with Anti-B → Type B

   • Clumping with both → Type AB

   • No clumping with A or B → Type O

   • Clumping with Anti-Rh → Rh+

   • No clumping with Anti-Rh → Rh−

Identify the blood group from a test result.

Reaction	Blood Type
Clumps with Anti-A only	Type A
Clumps with Anti-B only	Type B
Clumps with Anti-A and Anti-B	Type AB
No clumping with Anti-A or Anti-B	Type O
Clumps with Anti-Rh	Rh Positive (+)
No clumping with Anti-Rh	Rh Negative (−)

Define universal donor and universal recipient.

Universal Donor

• A person with blood type O negative (O−)

• Can donate blood to all blood types (A, B, AB, O)

• Reason: has no A, B, or Rh antigens on red blood cells, so it will not trigger an immune reaction.

Universal Recipient

• A person with blood type AB positive (AB+)

• Can receive blood from all blood types (A, B, AB, O)

• Reason: has no anti-A or anti-B antibodies in the plasma, and Rh positive can accept both Rh+ and Rh− blood.

Quick Summary

• O− = universal donor

• AB+ = universal recipient

Rh Type	Antigen on RBC	Antibodies in Plasma
Rh+	Rh (D) antigen present	No anti-Rh antibodies
Rh−	No Rh antigen	May develop anti-Rh antibodies after exposure

Blood Type	Antigens on RBC membrane	Antibodies in Plasma (Serum)
A	A antigen	Anti-B antibodies
B	B antigen	Anti-A antibodies
AB	A and B antigens	No anti-A or anti-B antibodies
O	No A or B antigens	Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies

Define and measure the hematocrit and the average normal value in a healthy young adult.

Percentage of blood occupied by RBCs

Method:

Microhematocrit (centrifugation) method

1. Fill capillary tube with blood

2. Centrifuge it

3. Blood separates into:

   • Plasma (top)

   • Buffy coat (middle)

   • RBCs (bottom)

4. Calculate: RBC layer ÷ total blood × 100

Normal Values:

• Males: 42–52%

• Females: 37–47%

Define the normal average of WBC count in a healthy young adult.

less then 1 percent of blood

Identify Neutrophile under the microscope and their percentages in normal condition (or image)

Neutrophile

NUCLEUS: Multi-lobed nucleus with 2–5 or more lobes

GRANULES : Small, no distinct pale lilac to neutral-staining

granules

COLOR OF CYTOPLASM : Usually pink but, sometimes has a reddish tinge

the most abundant (50% - 70%)

Identify Basophil under the microscope and their percentages in normal condition (or image)

Basophile

NUCLEUS: Nucleus is large, varied in shape;

GRANULES : Large, dark blue-purple granules

COLOR OF CYTOPLASM : Purple

Least abundant less 1%

Identify Eosinophil under the microscope and their percentages in normal condition (or image)

Eosinophile

NUCLEUS: Bi-lobed nucleus (occasionally 3 lobes)

GRANULES : Many medium, red-orange

COLOR OF CYTOPLASM : Pink

Between 2% - 4% (Increase in Parasitic infection or Allergy)

Identify Monocyte under the microscope and their percentages in normal condition (or image)

NUCLEUS: Large kidney bean or horseshoe-shaped lacy nucleus

GRANULES : NO

COLOR OF CYTOPLASM : Light blue-gray

The largest of the leukocytes.(Twice the size of RBC)

3% - 8% of total leukocytes

Identify Lymphocyte under the microscope and their percentages in normal condition (or image)

NUCLEUS: Large, round, or slightly indented nucleus that stains very dark purple

GRANULES : NO

COLOR OF CYTOPLASM : Light sky-blue cytoplasm; small cells have only a rim of cytoplasm

The smallest of the leukocytes. (About the size of RBC)

25% - 30% of WBC

Identify Platelet under the microscope and their percentages in normal condition (or image)

NUCLEUS: NO

GRANULES : Dark purple granules

COLOR OF CYTOPLASM : Difficult to see because of dark purple granules The smallest of the leukocytes. (About the size of RBC)

WBC UNDER MICROSCOPE OVERVIEW

What causes an increase in certain WBC

Define the meaning of Leukocytosis and Leukopenia.

Word Breakdown

Leukocytosis

• leuko- = white

• cyt/o = cell

• -osis = condition (usually increase)
  👉 Meaning: condition of increased white blood cells

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Leukopenia

• leuko- = white

• penia = deficiency / decrease
  👉 Meaning: decrease in white blood cells

RBC under microscope

Define the meaning of thrombocytopenia and thrombocytosis.

Thrombocytopenia

• thrombo- = clot / platelets

• cyto- = cell

• -penia = decrease / deficiency

👉 Meaning: Abnormally low platelet count in the blood

• Can lead to easy bleeding, bruising, or poor clotting

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Thrombocytosis

• thrombo- = clot / platelets

• -cytosis = increase in cells

👉 Meaning: Abnormally high platelet count in the blood

• Can increase risk of excess clot formation (thrombosis)

Identify the Pharyngeal (adenoid), palatine and lingual tonsils on head and neck or Torso models

Identify Right lymphatic duct, Thoracic duct, Spleen, Cisterna chili and different lymphatic regions on the model.

Identify different structures on microscopic slide of lymph node: Capsule, Germinal center of lymph nodule and medulla of lymph node.

Identify different structures on microscopic slide of spleen: Central vein, Red pup and white pulp and list the functions of each part.

🧠 1. White Pulp

What you see (microscope):

• Darker-staining lymphoid nodules

• Surrounds a central arteriole

• Looks like small “islands” of dense purple/blue tissue

Function:

• Immune response against blood-borne pathogens

• Contains lymphocytes (T cells + B cells)

• Produces antibodies

• Detects and reacts to antigens in the blood

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🩸 2. Red Pulp

What you see (microscope):

• More abundant, lighter pink/red areas

• Made of splenic cords (cords of Billroth) and venous sinusoids

• Full of red blood cells

Function:

• Filters blood

• Removes old/damaged RBCs and platelets

• Recycles iron from hemoglobin

• Acts as a blood reservoir (stores blood)

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🔴 3. Central Arteriole

What you see (microscope):

• Small artery running through white pulp

• Thick smooth muscle wall compared to nearby capillaries

Function:

• Supplies oxygenated blood to white pulp and red pulp

• Distributes blood into splenic circulation

• Helps deliver antigens to immune cells for surveillance

Identify the Mucosa Associated Lymphatic tissue (MALT) in small intestine

Peyer’s patch

Identify lymphatic vessels under the microscope.

Identify the following heart structures on models:

a. Right & left atria and also auricle

b. Right & left ventricles

c. Anterior & Posterior interventricular sulcus

d. Coronary sinus

e. Apex & Base of the heart

g. Ascending aorta, arch of aorta & descending aorta and branches

h. Pulmonary trunk, right and left pulmonary artery

i. Pulmonary veins

j. Superior and inferior vena cava

Identify Endocardium, myocardium & epicardium

Different layers of pericardium (fibrous pericardium, parietal and visceral pericardium).

Identify the following internal heart structures:

l. Bicuspid and tricuspid valves

m. Aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves

n. Interventricular septum

o. Trabeculae carneae

p. Pectinate muscles

q. Papillary muscles

r. Chordae tendinae

s. Fossa ovalis in the right atrium

t. Opening of the superior vena cava & inferior vena cava in the right atrium

u. Opening of the coronary sinus in the right atrium

v. Openings of the pulmonary veins in the left atrium

Identify the following coronary blood vessels:

a. Marginal branch & posterior interventricular branch of the right coronary artery

b. Anterior interventricular branch and circumflex branch of the left coronary artery

c. Great cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein, small cardiac vein and the coronary sinus

Identify a microscopic section of an artery and a vein, and name the layers of the wall of an

artery and a vein.

Identify three types of capillary on image.

Identify cardiac muscles on microscopic slide and identify the intercalated disk on slide.

Be able to identify the following major arteries on the blood vessel model:

a. Ascending, descending, and arch of aorta

b. Pulmonary artery

c. Coronary arteries

d. Brachiocephalic trunk

e. Left and right common carotid

f. Left and right subclavian

g. Axillary

h. Brachial

i. Celiac trunk

j. Superior mesenteric

k. Inferior mesenteric

l. Right and left common iliac

m. Right and left external iliac

n. Right and left internal iliac

o. Right and left femoral

Be able to identify the following major veins on the blood vessel model:

a. Superior and inferior vena cava

b. Right and left external jugular

c. Right and left internal jugular

d. Right and left subclavian

e. Brachiocephalic

f. Right and left common iliac

g. Right and left internal iliac

h. Right and left external iliac

i. Right and left femoral

j. Right and left renal

k. Hepatics

Contrast the pathway of blood in the pulmonary and systemic circulation

Compare the amount of oxygen (oxygen-rich or oxygen-poor blood) in the following blood

vessels: aorta, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins, superior & inferior vena cava.

Name the device for listening of the heart sounds.

Name the process of listening of heart sound (auscultation), define the location of four areas

for auscultation.

Define the heart murmur.

Contrast the characteristics of the first and second heart sounds.

Define the process of pulse palpitation and five grades of pulse palpitation (from 0 – 4).

Describe why you should never assess both of your patient’s carotid arteries at the same time.

Name of the instrument used for measuring blood pressure.

Define systolic and diastolic blood pressures are determined using the sphygmomanometer.

Describe the cause of production and disappearance of the Korotkoff sounds.

Define the normal average blood pressure in a healthy young adult

Define the changes happened to blood pressure during sleep, in the standing position, and

after exercise.

Correlate the systolic and diastolic blood pressures with the functioning of the heart

Define the Pulse pressure and mean arterial pressure and calculate them by given systolic and diastolic pressure.

Compare the changes happened in systolic, diastolic, mean arterial pressure, pulse pressure,

pulse and Respiratory rate between before, during and after exercise.

Discuss the conduction system of the heart, different structures and define the location and

function of each of them

Identify the P wave, QRS complex and the T wave from an ECG record.

Identify the P-R interval, Q-T interval and S-T segment from an ECG record

Define what each wave signifies.

Calculate Heart rate and cardiac cycle length, the time of systole and Diastole by given an

ECG.

Define the meaning of Tachycardia and Bradicardia. Identify them by given ECG.