Learn: Unit 1 Theories and Research | Quizlet

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Behaviorism

the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

nature-nurture issue

the long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

biological psychology (neuroscience)

a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes

evolutionary psychology

the attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection

psychodynamic perspective

how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning

social-cultural psychology

study of how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

The branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.

psychiatry

a branch of medicine that deals with mental, emotional, or behavioral disorders

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

survey

A study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with information about how people think and act.

Population

all individuals who can participate in a study.

representative sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole

random sample

method of selecting from a population in which each person has an equal probability of being selected

social desirability bias

the tendency for people to say what they believe is appropriate or acceptable

Hawthorne effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Scatterplot

a graphical depiction of the relationship between two variables

experimental research

a set of controlled observations that test the hypothesis

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the independent variable

control group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Single-blind procedure

research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group

double-blind procedure

A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups.

Placebo

A harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed more for the psychological benefit to the patient than for any physiological effect.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

measures of central tendency

mean, median, mode

mean

average

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

measure of variability

a statistic that indicates the spread of distribution

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean

normal distribution

a bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population

skewed distribution

an asymmetrical but generally bell-shaped distribution ; its mode, or most frequent response, lies off to one side

inferential statistics

procedures used to draw conclusions about larger populations from small samples of data

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

null hypothesis

A claim that there is no relationship between two sets of data or variables being studied, to that the effect being studied does not exist.

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Confidentiality

an ethical principle that research participants private information will be protected.

Debriefing

an ethical principle that states after the experiment an explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, is revealed to the participants

industrial/organizational psychologist

a psychologist who uses psychological concepts to make the workplace a more satisfying environment for employees and managers

developmental psychologist

a psychologist who studies the emotional, cognitive, biological, personal, and social changes that occur as an individual matures

personality psychologists

Psychologists who study the characteristics that make individuals similar to, or different from, one another

social psychologists

work to study an individual's behavior, including actions, thoughts and choices and how they are influenced by the larger society. Many Social Psychologists are employed in academia (collegiate or university level), private sector research or public, governmental agencies (public school districts).

behavior genetics

the field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

cultural norm

a behavioral rule shared by an entire society

falsifiable

able to be disproven by experimental results, shown to be incorrect

convenience sampling

using a sample of people who are readily available to participate

Generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied

directionality problem

a problem encountered in correlational studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable

third variable problem (confounding variable)

The circumstance where a variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two other variables. Third variables are also known as confounds.

Quantitative Research

research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form

Qualitiative Research

Research that is based on unmeasurable qualitities, such as teacher observation and examination of case studies.

effect size

the magnitude, or strength, of a relationship between two or more variables

predictive validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results,

test-retest reliability

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions

split-half reliability

A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.

Sample

A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in an experiment so as to be representative of the whole.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate our ability to make correct predictions

meta-analysis

a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

sampling bias

A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.

peer review

A process by which the procedures and results of an experiment are evaluated by other scientists who are in the same field or who are conducting similar research.

self-report bias

systematic errors that can occur in self-report data because participants are unable or unwilling to answer accurately

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology.

Informed Assent

-case in which child is informed about what is going to be required and they have the opportunity to agree to or disagree to treatment

-children of different ages require different levels of confidentiality

Protection from harm

the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm

deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire

normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

bimodal distribution

a distribution with two modes

percentile rank

Percentage of scores falling at or below a specific score.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

social psychology

study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

non-experimental research

research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable, random assignment of participants to conditions or orders of conditions, or both

experimenter bias

the influence of the experimenter's expectations on the outcome of research

correlational fallacy

inappropriately inferring causality from a simple association between two variables

Likert Scale

a way of formatting a survey questionnaire so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation