ISS Exam 2

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two variables fluctuate together, reflecting both the direction and strength of their relationship.

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables in which they increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

A relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in another.

No Correlation

A situation where two variables do not have any relationship with each other.

True Score

The actual value or real ability of a person or variable being measured, free from any influences that might distort the measurement.

Measurement Error

The difference between the observed score and the true score, arising from various factors.

Target Behavior

The specific behavior that is being observed and measured in a study.

Observation

The act of monitoring and recording behaviors in a systematic way.

Dropout Rates

The frequency at which participants discontinue or drop out of surveys, often due to survey length or boredom.

Electronic Surveys

Surveys conducted online that typically reduce costs associated with printing and mailing.

Independent Variable

The factor that is manipulated or changed in an experiment to observe its effect on a dependent variable. It's the variable that you think will influence the outcome. For example, if you're studying how different amounts of sunlight affect plant growth, the amount of sunlight would be the independent variable.

Dependent Variable

The factor that you measure in an experiment. It's called 'dependent' because its value depends on changes made to the independent variable. For example, in a study examining how different amounts of water affect plant growth, the growth of the plants (measured in height or number of leaves) would be the dependent variable.

Nominal Variables

Allows us to classify individuals into different groups based on a given characteristic. For example, numbers represent different hair colors. The number is only used for identification, not for ranking. There is no absolute zero.

Ordinal Variables

Permits the assignment of a higher number to an individual who has a greater degree of a measured characteristic (ranking). For example, a race is an ordinal ranking. 

Interval Variables

Variable measured by order with equal distances between each variable on the scale. There is no true zero. For example, a temperature scale where the difference between degrees is consistent, but zero doesn't mean 'no temperature'

Ratio Variables

Has all the properties of interval measurement, but it also has a true zero point. For example, a measurement where zero means the absence of the quantity being measured, like weight or height. 

Surveys

Tools used to gather information about opinions, attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors.

Naturalistic Observation

Features very direct data collection using visual observation, field notes, and recordings in natural settings. Jane Goodall’s classic studies of chimpanzees are a good example of this type of research.

Participant Observation

A research method involving immersion in the studied phenomenon, either disguised or undisguised. For example, scientists interested in homelessness have lived as homeless persons for a period of time to gain authentic insight into the experience. I

FMRI

A neuroimaging technique used to measure and map brain activity by detecting blood flow changes.

Primary Data

Data collected directly by researchers for their own purpose.

Secondary Data

Data collected by someone else for a different purpose but used in new research.

Social Desirability Bias

This occurs when respondents provide answers they believe are more socially acceptable rather than their true feelings or behaviors.

Confirmation Bias

This is the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Testing Situation Bias

This bias arises from the conditions under which a test is administered. Factors like the environment, time of day, or even the presence of an observer can influence how participants perform.

Test Bias

Situations in which a test unfairly advantages or disadvantages certain groups. For example, a standardized test that uses culturally specific language may disadvantage students from different backgrounds.

Content Bias

Occurs when a test does not accurately represent the construct it is intended to measure.

Researcher Bias

Bias resulting from a researcher's expectations or preferences impacting the study outcome.

Probability Sampling

Sampling method where every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

Simple Random Sampling

A sampling method where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Stratified Sampling

Sampling method where the population is divided into subgroups and random samples are taken from each.

Cluster Sampling

A method where the population is divided into clusters, and entire clusters are randomly selected.

Non-Probability Sampling

Sampling method that does not give every individual an equal chance of selection.

Convenience Sampling

Sampling from groups that are easy to reach.

Judgmental Sampling

A sampling method where the researcher selects participants based on judgment.

Snowball Sampling

A sampling method where existing subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances.

Internal Validity

The extent to which a study establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

External Validity

The extent to which study findings can be generalized to other settings or populations.

Ecological Validity

A subset of external validity focusing on how findings can be generalized to real-world settings.

Reactivity

The phenomenon where individuals change their behavior when they know they are being observed.

Cross-Sectional Survey

This type of survey collects data at a single point in time from a sample or population. It provides a snapshot of a particular characteristic or phenomenon. For example, if you wanted to know the prevalence of a certain health condition among adults in a city, you would survey a group of adults at one specific time.

Longitudinal Survey

A survey that collects data from the same subjects repeatedly over an extended period. This allows researchers to observe changes and trends over time.

Structured Interviews

This format is often used in quantitative research to ensure consistency across all interviews, making it easier to compare responses.

Unstructured Interviews

Interviews that are flexible and conversational, allowing for adaptation based on responses. This format is often used in qualitative research to explore deeper insights and understand the interviewee's perspective.

Focus Groups

A qualitative research method involving a small group discussion guided by a moderator.

Demographic Variables

Population characteristics often used to describe and identify respondents (age, gender, race & ethnicity, education level).

Likert-type Items

A common format used in surveys to measure attitudes, opinions, or perceptions. They typically present a statement, and respondents indicate their level of agreement or disagreement on a scale. For example, a statement might be "I enjoy studying research methods," and the response options could range from "1 - Strongly Disagree" to "5 - Strongly Agree." 

Semantic-Differential Items

A rating scale used to measure attitudes toward a concept.

Reliability

The consistency and stability of a measure across multiple administrations.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure.

Construct Validity

Evaluates whether the test measures the theoretical construct it claims to measure.

Test-Retest Reliability

Measuring the stability of a test over time using scores from the same individuals.

Criterion-Related Validity

Examines how well one measure predicts an outcome based on another measure.

Content Validity

Assesses whether a test covers the entire content area it is supposed to measure.

Construct

An abstract concept or variable that represents a specific phenomenon in research.