ap psych

Action Potential

An electrical impulse that occurs when sodium ions flow into the neuron (depolarization) and potassium ions flow out (repolarization).

Refractory Period

The period during which a neuron cannot fire again; acts as a recharge time.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter involved in movement and memory; low levels are linked to Alzheimer's disease.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter important for reward and motor functions; high levels are linked to schizophrenia, while low levels are connected to Parkinson’s disease.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood; low levels may contribute to depression.

Endorphins

Natural pain relievers that act similarly to morphine.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that slows down neuron activity.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter that speeds up neuron activity.

Agonist

A substance that mimics the action of neurotransmitters.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks the action of neurotransmitters.

Broca’s Area

Responsible for producing speech; located in the left frontal lobe.

Wernicke’s Area

Responsible for understanding speech; located in the left temporal lobe.

Reticular Formation

Plays a role in arousal and alertness.

Corpus Callosum

Connects the two hemispheres of the brain; can be severed in medical treatments for epilepsy.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process demonstrated by Pavlov, involving the association of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

US (Unconditioned Stimulus)

Food; it naturally triggers a response.

UR (Unconditioned Response)

Salivation that occurs due to food.

CS (Conditioned Stimulus)

Bell; which triggers a conditioned response after conditioning.

CR (Conditioned Response)

Salivation in response to the bell.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desired stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.

Reinforcement

Aimed at increasing behavior.

Punishment

Aimed at decreasing behavior.

Serial Position Effect

People tend to remember the first and last items of a list best.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall old memories.

Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage

Development of object permanence.

Piaget’s Preoperational Stage

Characterized by egocentrism and animism.

Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage

Understanding conservation.

Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage

Development of abstract reasoning.

Erikson’s Trust vs. Mistrust

Psychosocial conflict in infancy.

Erikson’s Identity vs. Role Confusion

Psychosocial conflict during adolescence.

Erikson’s Integrity vs. Despair

Psychosocial conflict in late adulthood.

Kohlberg’s Preconventional Level

Focus on self-interest in moral reasoning.

Kohlberg’s Conventional Level

Focus on laws and rules in moral reasoning.

Kohlberg’s Postconventional Level

Focus on ethical principles in moral reasoning.

Freud’s Id

Operates on the pleasure principle.

Freud’s Ego

Operates on the reality principle.

Freud’s Superego

Represents moral standards.

Bipolar Disorder

Characterized by alternating episodes of depression and mania.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Involves obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors).

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Involves nightmares and flashbacks following a traumatic event.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

Characterized by multiple distinct personalities.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Therapy that focuses on altering thought patterns and behaviors.

Transference

A therapeutic phenomenon where patients project feelings about others onto the therapist.

Social Facilitation

The tendency to perform better on easy tasks in the presence of others.

Social Loafing

A decrease in effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

Groupthink

A phenomenon where group members prioritize consensus over critical analysis.

Cornea

The outer layer of the eye that focuses light.

Pupil/Iris

The opening that controls the amount of light entering the eye.

Lens

Focuses light onto the retina.

Retina

The layer where transduction occurs.

Rods

Handle peripheral vision, see in black and white, function in low light.

Cones

Responsible for color vision and fine detail, concentrated at the center of the retina.

Pinna

The outer ear structure that collects sound.

Auditory Canal

The passage connecting the outer ear to the eardrum.

Eardrum

Membrane that vibrates in response to sound.

Ossicles

Three small bones (Hammer, Anvil, Stirrup) that transmit sound vibrations.

Cochlea

Structure where sound transduction occurs.

NREM-1

Light sleep with hypnagogic sensations.

NREM-3

Deep sleep characterized by Delta waves; sleepwalking occurs during this stage.

REM Sleep

Stage characterized by muscle paralysis, vivid dreaming, and brain waves similar to wakefulness.

Drive-Reduction Theory

Motivation arises to maintain homeostasis.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Optimal performance occurs at a moderate level of arousal.

James-Lange Theory

Physiological response occurs first, followed by emotion.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Physiological response and emotion occur simultaneously.

Schachter-Singer Theory (Two-Factor)

Physiological response occurs, then it is interpreted based on the environment.

Approach-Approach Conflict

Choosing between two favorable options.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Choosing between two unfavorable options.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

One option with both positive and negative aspects.