ap psych

Part 1: Biological Bases (The "Technical" Points)

• Action Potential: An electrical impulse that occurs when sodium ions flow into the neuron (Depolarization) and potassium ions flow out (Repolarization).

• Refractory Period: The period during which a neuron cannot fire again; it acts like a recharge time.

• Neurotransmitters:

  1. Acetylcholine (ACh): Involved in movement and memory; low levels are associated with Alzheimer's disease.

  2. Dopamine: Important for reward and motor functions; high levels are linked to schizophrenia, while low levels are associated with Parkinson’s disease.

  3. Serotonin: Regulates mood; low levels may contribute to depression.

  4. Endorphins: Act as natural pain relievers, similar to morphine.

  5. GABA: An inhibitory neurotransmitter that slows down neuron activity; Glutamate: An excitatory neurotransmitter that speeds up neuron activity.

  6. Agonist: A substance that mimics the action of neurotransmitters; Antagonist: A substance that blocks the action of neurotransmitters.

• Brain Parts:

  1. Broca’s Area: Responsible for producing speech; located in the left frontal lobe.

  2. Wernicke’s Area: Responsible for understanding speech; located in the left temporal lobe.

  3. Reticular Formation: Plays a role in arousal and alertness.

  4. Corpus Callosum: Connects the two hemispheres of the brain; it can be severed in medical treatments for epilepsy.

Part 2: Learning & Cognition (The "Logic" Points)

• Classical Conditioning (Pavlov):

  1. US (Unconditioned Stimulus): Food

  2. UR (Unconditioned Response): Salivation due to food

  3. CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Bell

  4. CR (Conditioned Response): Salivation in response to the bell.

• Operant Conditioning (Skinner):

  1. Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desired stimulus.

  2. Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus.

  3. Reinforcement: Aimed at increasing behavior.

  4. Punishment: Aimed at decreasing behavior.

• Memory:

  1. Serial Position Effect: People tend to remember the first (Primacy effect) and last items (Recency effect) of a list best.

  2. Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories.

  3. Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall old memories.

Part 3: Developmental & Personality

• Piaget (Cognitive Development):

  • Sensorimotor Stage: Development of object permanence

  • Preoperational Stage: Characterized by egocentrism and animism

  • Concrete Operational Stage: Understanding conservation

  • Formal Operational Stage: Development of abstract reasoning.

• Erikson (Social Development):

  • Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)

  • Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)

  • Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood)

• Kohlberg (Moral Development):

  • Preconventional Level: Focus on self-interest

  • Conventional Level: Focus on laws and rules

  • Postconventional Level: Focus on ethical principles.

• Freud’s Structure of Personality:

  • Id: Operates on the pleasure principle

  • Ego: Operates on the reality principle

  • Superego: Represents moral standards.

Part 4: Clinical & Social (The "Scenario" Points)

• Disorders:

  1. Bipolar Disorder: Characterized by alternating episodes of depression and mania.

  2. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Involves obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors).

  3. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Involves nightmares and flashbacks following a traumatic event.

  4. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): Characterized by multiple distinct personalities.

• Therapies:

  1. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Focuses on altering thought patterns and behaviors.

  2. Transference: A therapeutic phenomenon where patients project feelings about others onto the therapist.

• Social Psychology:

  1. Social Facilitation: The tendency to perform better on easy tasks in the presence of others.

  2. Social Loafing: A decrease in effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

  3. Groupthink: A phenomenon where group members prioritize consensus over critical analysis, which can lead to poor decisions.

• The Eye: Pathway: Cornea → Pupil/Iris → Lens (for focusing) → Retina (where transduction occurs).

  • Rods: Handle peripheral vision, see in black and white, function in low light.

  • Cones: Responsible for color vision and fine detail, concentrated at the center of the retina (Fovea).

• The Ear: Pathway: Pinna → Auditory Canal → Eardrum → Ossicles (Hammer, Anvil, Stirrup) → Cochlea (where transduction occurs).

• Sleep Stages (States of Consciousness):

  1. NREM-1: Light sleep with hypnagogic sensations (like the sensation of falling).

  2. NREM-3: Deep sleep characterized by Delta waves; sleepwalking occurs during this stage.

  3. REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep: Characterized by brain waves similar to wakefulness, muscle paralysis, and vivid dreaming.

• Motivation and Emotion:

  • Drive-Reduction Theory: Motivation arises to maintain homeostasis (balance); for example, feeling thirsty drives the behavior of drinking water.

  • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal performance occurs at a moderate level of arousal; too much stress induces panic, while too little leads to boredom.

• Emotion Theories (The "Big 3"):

  1. James-Lange Theory: Physiological response occurs first, followed by emotion (e.g., "I'm trembling; therefore, I am afraid").

  2. Cannon-Bard Theory: Physiological response and emotion occur simultaneously.

  3. Schachter-Singer Theory (Two-Factor): Physiological response occurs, then it is interpreted based on the environment, leading to the emotional experience (e.g., "My heart is racing plus there is a bear, so I am afraid").

• Psychological Conflicts (Lewin): Commonly seen in stress/decision-making scenarios:

  • Approach-Approach Conflict: Choosing between two favorable options (e.g., selecting between two great colleges).

  • Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: Choosing between two unfavorable options (e.g., cleaning the bathroom or doing the dishes).

  • Approach-Avoidance Conflict: One option with both positive and negative aspects (e.g., accepting a high-paying job that requires relocating away from friends).