Studied by 76 people
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
analyzes an embryo before it implants. Only possible in IVF
primary spermatocyte
a cell that divides to form two secondary spermatocytes
what makes primary spermatocytes?
Spermatogonium
secondary spermatocytes
Haploid cells resulting from the first meiotic division of spermatogenesis. Secondary spermatocytes are ready to enter meiosis II. 1 chromosome set
mitosis phases
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
oogonia
an immature female reproductive cell that gives rise to primary oocytes by mitosis
primary oocyte
a cell that divides to form the polar body and the secondary oocyte
secondary oocyte
An oocyte in which the first meiotic division is completed. The second meiotic division usually stops short of completion unless fertilization occurs.
what happens to polar bodies
apoptosis or absorbed by the body
is the second polar body made all the time?
No, because meiosis 2 is halted until fertilization. No fertilization, no 2nd polar body.
what cell is more likely to have an abnormal amount of chromosomes?
Eggs, and probability goes up with age. the longer the cell is frozen in prophase one, the more likely it is for problems to arise.
why do sperm have more mutations?
they divide more frequently since their replication occurs every 16 days.
Mendel's Method
use the pollen from a male plant on a female plant and let them reproduce based on traits
true breeding
term used to describe organisms that produce offspring identical to themselves if allowed to self-pollinate
P generation
Parental generation, the first two individuals that mate in a genetic cross
F1 generation
the first generation of offspring obtained from an experimental cross of two organisms
F2 generation
Offspring resulting from interbreeding of the hybrid F1 generation.
Mendel's Law of Segregation
the two copies of a gene segregate from each other during transmission from parent to offspring
Dominant
Describes a trait that covers over, or dominates, another form of that trait.
recessive
trait of an organism that can be masked by the dominant form of a trait
phenotype ratio of a monohybrid cross
3:1 if complete dominance and both parents are heterozygous
testcross
cross between an organism with an unknown genotype and an organism with a recessive phenotype
dihybrid cross
Cross or mating between organisms involving two pairs of contrasting traits
number of gamete combinations
2^n where n is the number of heterozygous genes
Probability
likelihood that a particular event will occur
Product Rule
the probability that two or more independent events will occur is equal to the product of their individual probabilities
Sum rule
probability of the occurrence of at least one of two mutually exclusive events is the sum of their individual probabilities
forked-line method
Diagram using product law of probabilities to predict genotypic and phenotypic frequencies
do many human traits show simple single gene inheritance?
no, most human traits are determined by several gene interactions.
what human genes follow simple gene inheritance?
ABO blood types, red-green color vision, and many genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis or Huntingtons.
Hemophilia C
Factor XI deficiency. C is not X-linked like A and B, it is also milder
de novo mutation
an alteration in a gene that is present for the first time in one family member as a result of a mutation in a germ cell (egg or sperm) of one of the parents or in the fertilized egg itself
in a pedigree if an individual is unaffected, do we include the homozygous recessive allele in probability calculations?
No, because the probability of him being homozygous recessive is 0 if the individual is unaffected.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by progressive weakening and a loss of muscle tissue.
X-linked dominant
a mode of genetic inheritance by which a dominant gene is carried on the X chromosome. more common in females than males.
Y-linked inheritance
Only males have Y chromosomes, passed from fathers to sons, all Y-linked traits are expressed. very rare.
Y linked hearing impairment
transmitted from fathers to sons in one particular family
Y chromosome infertility
usually caused by deletions of genetic material in regions of the Y chromosome called azoospermia factor (AZF) A, B, or C. Genes in these regions are believed to provide instructions for making proteins involved in sperm cell development.
haplosufficient
describes a gene that, in a diploid cell, can promote wild-type function in only one copy (dose)
Haploinsufficiency
The appearance of a mutant phenotype in an individual cell or organism that is heterozygous for a normally recessive trait. one copy creates a normal product, but the other creates a protein that interferes with the other.
Fibrillin-1 function
joint stuff.
dominant negative mutation
Exerts a dominant effect. A heterozygote produces a nonfunctional altered protein that also prevents the normal gene product from functioning
gain of function mutation
causes the appearance of a new trait or function or causes the appearance of a trait in inappropriate tissue or at an inappropriate time
incomplete penetrance
Not all individuals with a mutant genotype show the mutant phenotype. easiest to spot in a dominant pedigree
penetrance
The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype.
s phase
Each chromosome still has 46 chromosomes, but 92 chromatids.
varying expressivity
gene shows its effect to different degrees in different members of a population
pleiotropy
A single gene having multiple effects on an individuals phenotype
variable penetrance
not all individuals of the same genotype show the expected phenotype
variable penetrance and variable expressivity
Some people have the trait, some do not, and those that do show very different variations on the trait.
modifier genes
genes that enhance or dilute the effects of other genes.
sometimes different copies of genes
Can be expressed to different levels. Sometimes, a normal gene will be expressed more than the diseased one.
Environmental factors
Can affect phenotype.
incomplete dominance
A pattern of inheritance in which two alleles, inherited from the parents, are neither dominant nor recessive. The resulting offspring have a phenotype that is a blending of the parental traits.
heterozygous advantage
Heterozygous alleles have greater selective advantage than either homozygous condition.
over dominance
A condition in which the heterozygote genotype expresses a phenotype outside the range of the homozygous phenotype. Think sickle cell giving an advantage over malaria.
Cystic fibrosis heterozygous
May have aided in protection from typhoid
Codominance
A condition in which neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive.
lethal phenotype
A phenotype (usually homozygous) that is lethal or results in premature death. Not counted in phenotypic ratios.
epistasis
A type of gene interaction in which one gene alters the phenotypic effects of another gene that is independently inherited.
Recessive epistasis
when the recessive allele of one gene masks the effects of either allele of the second gene. 9:4:3
duplicate dominant epistasis
homozygous recessive genotypes for both genes are required for an observed result. 15:1
duplicate recessive epistasis
two recessive alleles at either of two loci are capable of suppressing a phenotype 9:7
dominant epistasis
when the dominant allele of one gene masks the effects of either allele of the second gene 12:3:1
Carrier DNA screening
available for disorders that have a relatively high prevalence in the population or in a particular ethnic group Analyzes DNA for the presence of the most common disease-causing mutations
Cell-free fetal DNA testing
Uses the mothers blood to screen- performed at >10wks until delivery
T21: 99% sensitivity, specificity** the best test
T18: 92% sensitive
T13: 80% sensitive
amniocentesis
A technique of prenatal diagnosis in which amniotic fluid, obtained by aspiration from a needle inserted into the uterus, is analyzed to detect certain genetic and congenital defects in the fetus.
chorionic villus sampling
sampling of placental tissue for microscopic and chemical examination to detect fetal abnormalities.
Newborn screening
The analysis of a neonate's blood for metabolic or genetic disorders to prevent mental retardation, disability or death
Karyotyping
Looking at the chromosomes from a blood test.
Note 
Flashcard (55)