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Zygote
“A fertilized egg that undergoes rapid cell division and differentiation over 2 weeks.
Example: After conception, the zygote begins dividing within days and eventually implants in the uterine wall.”
Embryo
“Developing human organism from the inner cells of the zygote, from 2 weeks to 2 months after conception.
Example: During the embryo stage, major organs like the heart and brain begin to form.”
Fetus
“Developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception onward.
Example: By the end of the first trimester, the fetus has developed distinct features and is about the size of a lemon.”
Teratogens
“Agents that can damage an embryo or fetus, contributing to birth defects.
Example: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome, causing cognitive and physical impairments.”
Jean Piaget
“Swiss developmental psychologist known for studying cognitive development and schemas.
Example: Piaget's research on children showed how they think differently at various stages, like how younger kids may think a tall glass holds more water than a wider glass.”
Schema
“A framework that helps organize and interpret information in the brain
Example: A child has a schema for a dog that includes characteristics like fur, barking, and four legs.”
Assimilation
“Interpreting new information by fitting it into existing schemas.
Example: A child sees a cat for the first time and calls it a dog because it has four legs and fur.”
Accommodation
“Adjusting or altering schemas to incorporate new information
Example: After learning that cats are not dogs, the child creates a new schema for cats.”
Conservation
“Understanding that the amount remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance
Example: A child who understands conservation knows that if you pour water from a short, wide glass into a tall, thin glass, the amount of water remains the same.”
Egocentrism
“The inability to take another person's perspective.
Example: A young child might cover their eyes and think that because they can’t see someone, the other person can’t see them either.”
Theory of Mind
“The awareness that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives different from one's own
Example: A 5-year-old realizes that when their friend is upset, it's because the friend lost a toy, and this is different from how they feel.”
Object Permanence
“Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not seen
Example: A baby searches for a ball that rolls under a couch, showing they know it still exists even though they can't see it.”
Sensorimotor Stage
“Developmental stage where children interact with the world through their senses and actions.
Example: An infant learns about the world by touching, seeing, and tasting objects around them”.
Preoperational Stage
“Developmental stage characterized by pretend play and limited understanding of conservation.
Example: A child engages in imaginative play, pretending a block is a car.”
Concrete-Operational Stage
“Cognitive stage where children understand conservation and perform basic arithmetic.
Example: A child can solve simple math problems and understands that doubling a recipe increases the amount of cookies.”
Formal-Operational Stage
“Cognitive stage where children can think abstractly and reason systematically.
Example: A teenager can devise a plan to improve their grades by studying differently for each subject”.
Mary Ainsworth
“Observed mother-infant pairs at home during their first six months.
Later observed one-year old infants in a “strange situation” (laboratory playroom) with or without parents.
Parents who are sensitive and responsive to children’s needs create securely attached children. Insensitive, unresponsive parents create insecurely attached children.
Secure Attachment
Role of temperament
Example: Ainsworth's research showed that children with secure attachments tend to have better social skills later in life.”
Harry Harlow
“Researcher who demonstrated the importance of contact comfort in infant attachment.
Example: Harlow's experiments with rhesus monkeys showed that they preferred soft, comforting surrogates over rigid metal ones for comfort.”
Konrad Lorenz
“Biologist known for his work on imprinting during a critical period of development.
Example: Lorenz's ducklings followed him as their caregiver after hatching, demonstrating the concept of imprinting.”
Critical Period
“A specific time during development when certain skills are most easily learned.
Example: Children often learn languages more easily before the age of 7, which is considered a critical period for language acquisition.”
Insecure Attachment
“A type of attachment where children exhibit anxiety or avoidance in relationships.
Example: A child may cling to their parent and resist being dropped off at daycare, showing signs of insecure attachment.”
Relational Aggression
“Behavior aimed at harming someone's social standing or relationships.
Example: A group of girls might exclude another girl from a social gathering to isolate her.”
Gender Role
“Socially influenced behaviors and attributes expected from males and females.
Example: Boys might be encouraged to play with trucks, while girls are encouraged to play with dolls.”
Gender Identity
“Personal sense of one's own gender.
Example: A person may identify as male, female, or non-binary based on their personal understanding of gender.”
Gender Typing
“The process by which a child becomes aware of their gender and behaves accordingly.
Example: A child sees themselves as a girl and starts engaging in activities that align with traditional femininity, such as playing dress-up.”
Lawrence Kohlberg
“Psychologist known for his theory on moral development.
Example: Kohlberg's stages can be seen when a child understands that rules exist for the greater good.”
Carol Gilligan
“Psychologist who argued that women typically focus more on relationships in identity formation.
Example: Gilligan's research highlighted that girls often prioritize friendships and emotional connections in their moral reasoning.”
Social Identity
“Part of an individual's identity derived from their group memberships.
Example: A teenager identifies as an athlete, which shapes their sense of self and how they interact with peers.”
Emerging Adulthood
“A developmental phase from late teens to mid-twenties characterized by exploration and change.
Example: A college student trying different majors and exploring career options represents the process of emerging adulthood.”
Testosterone
“A hormone associated with the development of male primary and secondary sex characteristics.
Example: Puberty in boys leads to increased testosterone levels, resulting in growth of facial hair and deepening of voice.”
Primary Sex Characteristics
“Body structures directly involved in reproduction, like testes and ovaries.
Example: In males, the development of testes during puberty is a primary sex characteristic.”
Secondary Sex Characteristics
“Non-reproductive traits like breast development and facial hair
Example: During puberty, girls develop breasts and boys develop facial hair.”
Cross-Sectional Study
“A research study that analyzes data from a population at a specific point in time.
Example: Researchers conducting a cross-sectional study on student performance might compare grades from various age groups in one year.”
Longitudinal Study
“Research that follows the same subjects over a period of time to observe changes.
Example: A longitudinal study tracking the same group of children from kindergarten through high school to assess educational outcomes.”
Alzheimer’s Disease
“A progressive disease that affects memory and cognitive function, commonly seen in older adults.
Example: An elderly woman diagnosed with Alzheimer's begins to forget names and faces, impacting her social interactions.”
Lev Vygotsky
“Cognitive development occurs through interaction with the social environment. Our parents provide a scaffold to our development. Parents help children when the child is in the “zone of proximal development,” which is the edge of what they can and can’t do.
Example: A parent helps their child solve a difficult math problem by guiding them through the process rather than simply giving them the answer, allowing the child to understand the concepts and eventually solve similar problems independently.”
Diana Baumrind:
“A developmental psychologist known for her research on parenting styles, which include authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful.
Example: An authoritative parent combines warmth and structure, setting clear expectations while also being supportive of their child's needs.”
Erik Erikson
“Parenting is essential to developing secure attachment. Infants develop a sense of basic trust (belief that the world is trustworthy and predictable) only if parents are sensitive and loving.
Example: A responsive mother who consistently attends to her baby's needs fosters feelings of trust and safety in her child.”
secure attachment
“Strongest attachment. Infant is comfortable to explore environments in presence of caregiver, shows only temporary distress when caregiver leaves, and finds comfort when they return.
Example: A child plays happily in a playroom, occasionally checking to see where their mother is, and calms down quickly when she returns after briefly leaving the room.”
identity
“A person's self-concept and self-perception formed through experiences, relationships, and societal influences, often explored in Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.
Example: A teenager exploring different hobbies and social groups to understand who they are and what they believe in.”
