virtue ethics

Arete

• In Aristotle’s virtue ethics, it means the qualities or excellences of character and intellect that allow a person (or thing) to fulfil its function (ergon) well.

• For humans, arete means developing virtues (like courage, honesty, wisdom) that help us flourish and live the good life (eudaimonia).

Agent centred 

• It focuses on the character of the moral agent (the person acting) rather than on the action itself (as in deontology) or the consequences (as in utilitarianism).

• What matters is what kind of person you are becoming — developing virtues (courage, honesty, generosity, etc.) through practice and habit.

• So morality is judged by whether the agent is acting in line with virtue and aiming at eudaimonia (flourishing), not simply by following rules or producing outcomes.

Aristotle's Function Argument

• You can determine if x is a good x if it fulfils it's function well

• Aristotle argues that just as the good of anything lies in fulfilling its function well, the good for humans is to live according to reason, guided by virtue. This is how we achieve eudaimonia (flourishing).

Rationality over emotions

Aristotle believes that humans flourish (live a good and successful life) when they fulfil their function, which is to use reason well.

Our emotions are part of the irrational side of the soul, and if left uncontrolled, they can lead us to make poor decisions and act badly. For Aristotle, it is not enough to suppress emotions, but rather to train them so that we feel the right emotions, at the right time, and in the right degree. By using our rationality to guide and control our emotions in this balanced way, we achieve virtue, which allows us to flourish (eudaimonia).

Eudaimonia

• Greek word usually translated as flourishing, living well, or the supreme good.

• For Aristotle, it is the ultimate goal of human life — the end we seek for its own sake (unlike wealth, pleasure, or honour, which are means to something else).

• It is not just a feeling of happiness, but an objective state of living in accordance with reason and virtue over a complete life.

• Eudaimonia is achieved by developing both moral virtues (like courage, honesty, generosity) through habit, and intellectual virtues (like phronesis, wisdom) through learning.

Virtues and Vices

• Virtues are qualities of character that are needed in order to flourish

• Vices are those qualities that lead us away from flourishing

Intellectual and moral virtues

• Moral virtues are excellences of character (like courage, generosity and honesty) and are developed through practice and habit.

•  Intellectual virtues are excellences of the mind (like prudence) and are developed through instruction.

The Skill Analogy

• Aristotle compares learning virtue to learning a practical skill (like playing the piano or learning a sport).

• No one is born virtuous, just as no one is born a skilled pianist.

• To become good, we must practise virtuous actions repeatedly until they become habits.

• Over time, these habits shape our character — just as practising piano shapes a good musician.

• Both skills and virtues require:

  1. Practice (repeated good actions).

  2. Instruction/Guidance (help from teachers, role models).

  3. Experience (knowing the right thing to do in the right context).

• Eventually, virtue (like skill) becomes second nature, allowing us to live in accordance with reason and achieve eudaimonia (flourishing).

5 intellectual virtues

1. Techne (Art/Craft) – skill in making or producing things.

2. Episteme (Scientific Knowledge) – knowledge of necessary, unchanging truths.

3. Nous (Intellect/Understanding) – grasping first principles or self-evident truths.

4. Sophia (Wisdom) – combination of nous + episteme, deep knowledge of highest truths.

5. Phronesis (Practical Wisdom/Prudence) – ability to act well in real situations, making good decisions.

Phronesis 

practical wisdom; the virtue that helps us apply reason to make good choices in real life.

12 moral virtues

1. Courage – balance between cowardice and recklessness.

2. Temperance (Self-control) – not indulgent or insensitive.

3. Liberality (Generosity) – giving the right amount, not mean or wasteful.

4. Magnificence – spending large sums appropriately, not stingy or showy.

5. Magnanimity (Greatness of soul) – knowing your true worth, not arrogant or timid.

6. Proper Ambition – aiming at the right honours, not over-ambitious or unambitious.

7. Patience (Good temper) – right control of anger, not irritable or spiritless.

8. Truthfulness (Honesty) – being honest about yourself, not boastful or falsely modest.

9. Wittiness – being pleasant in conversation, not a clown or boring.

10. Friendliness – being kind in social life, not rude or overly flattering.

11. Modesty – feeling shame in the right way, not shameless or overly shy.

12. Justice – giving others their due, being fair.

the golden mean

• Aristotle said virtue lies between two extremes: excess and deficiency.

• Example: Modesty (aidōs) is the virtue.

  • Excess = Shyness (too much shame) → a person is overly timid, embarrassed, or afraid of others’ opinions.

  • Deficiency = Shamelessness (too little shame) → a person feels no guilt or embarrassment when doing wrong.

• The Golden Mean is not about picking the “middle” mechanically, but about finding the right response in the right situation, guided by reason and phronesis.

• Living according to the mean develops virtue and helps us achieve eudaimonia (flourishing).