Studied by 31 people
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Operational Definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
Population
All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Scatterplot
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
Slope suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables
The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing the preexisting differences between the different groups
Double-Blind Prodecure
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
Commonly done during drug-evaluation studies
Biological Approach
Searches for the causes of behavior in the functioning of genes, the brain, nervous system, and endocrine system
Emphasizes how our physical makeup and the operation of our brains influence our personality, preference, behavior patterns, and abilities
Cognitive Approach
Emphasizes our mental processes (such as learning, memory, and perception) as forms of information processing
Suggests that our thoughts and actions arise from the way we interpret our experiences
Psychodynamic Approach
Emphasizes the understanding of thoughts and behaviors in terms of unconscious needs, desires, memories, and conflict
Looks at how someone’s personality traits and disorders can be explained in terms of sexual and aggressive drives or as the disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas
Humanistic Approach
Emphasizes human ability, growth, potential, and free will
Our actions are largely influenced by our self-concept and by our need for personal growth and fulfillment
Behavioral Approach
Finds the source of our actions in environmental stimuli, rather than inner mental processes
Calls attention to the ways reward and punishment shape how we act
Sociocultural Approach
Emphasizes the importance of social interactions, social learning, and a cultural perspective
Looks at the profound influence culture has on all of us
Evolutionary Approach
Sees behavioral and mental processes in terms of their genetic adaptation for survival and reproduction
Biopsychosocial Approach
Incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints
Psychometrics
Studies the measurement of our abilities, attitudes and traits
Basic Research
Builds psychology’s knowledge base
Applied Research
Tackles practical problems
Industrial-Organizational
Psychologists who use psychology’s concepts and methods in the workplace to help organizations
Counseling Psychologists
Help people to cope with challenges and crises, and to improve their personal & social functioning
Clinical Psychologists
Assesses and treats mental, emotional, behavioral & psychological disorders
Psychiatrists
Medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs and otherwise treat physical causes of psychological disorders
Sensory Neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
Motor Neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Reuptake
A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
Nervous System
The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
Endocrine System
The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
Broca’s Area
Helps control language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke’s Area
A brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
Plasticity
The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Neurogenesis
The formation of new neurons
Chromosomes
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
DNA
A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
Genes
The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
Heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes
Circadian Rhythm
Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
REM Bound
The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprevation
Psychoactive Drug
A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
Addiction
A compulsive craving for a substance despite adverse consequences and often with physical symptoms such as aches, nausea, and distress following sudden withdrawal
Agonist
A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action
Antagonist
A molecule that inhibits or block’s a neurotransmitter’s action
Tolerance
The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger dose before experiencing the drug’s effect
Withdrawal
The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing and use of an addictive drug or substance
Depressants
Reduce neural activity and slow body functions
Stimulants
Excite neural activity and speed up body functions
Hallucinogens
Distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
Night Terrors
Appearing terrified, talking nonsense, sitting up, or walking around during NREM-3 sleep
Insomnia
Recurring problems in falling of staying asleep
Narcolepsy
Sudden attacks of overwheming sleepiness
Sleep Apnea
Stopping breathing repeatedly while sleeping
Medulla
The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Pons
Helps coordinate movement and controls sleep
Reticular Formation System
Helps control arousal
Thalamus
Relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex
Sensory control center
Hypothalamus
Directs several maintenance activities (like body temperature)
Helps govern the endocrine system (hormones) via the pituitary gland
Hippocampus
Linked to conscious memory
Helps store explicit memories of facts and events
Amygdala
Linked to emotion
Pituitary Gland
The master endocrine gland
Frontal Lobe
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead
Involved in speaking, muscle movement, in making plans and judgements, and personality
Temporal Lobe
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
Parietal Lobe
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the back
Receives sensory input for touch and body position
Occipital Lobe
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying a the back of the head
Includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
Cerebellum
Coordinates voluntary movement and balance, and supports learning and memories
Sensory Cortex
Area at the front of the parietal lobe that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Motor Cortex
Area at the rear of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary movements
Brainstem
Oldest part and central core of the brain
Responsible for basic survival functions
Limbic system
Second oldest part of the brain
Located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Cerebral Cortex
Newest part of the brain
Ultimate control and information-processing center
EEG
Electrodes placed on the scalp measure electrical activity in neurons
CT Scan (CAT Scan)
X-rays of the head generate images that may locate brain damage
PET Scan
A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
MRI
People sit or lie down in a chamber where magnetic fields and radio waves to provide a map of brain structure
fMRI
Measures blood flow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans - shows brain function as well as structure
Selective Attention
The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
Inattentional Blindness
Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
Change Blindness
Failing to notice changes in the environment
Absolute Threshold
The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
Signal Detection Theory
Predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation
Difference Threshold
The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time
We experience this as just a noticeable difference
Sensory Adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
Hue
The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light
Intensity
The amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness
Determined by the waves amplitude
Frequency
The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
Kinethesis
Our movement sense - our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
Gate-Control Theory
The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain
The “gate” is opened by the activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain
Figure-Ground
The organization of the visual field into objects (figure) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)
Perceptual Adaptation
The ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
Perceptual Set
A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
Bottom-Up Processing
Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
Top-Down Processing
Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
Trichromatic (three-color) Theory
The theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, and one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color
Opponent-Process Theory
The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, & white-black) enable color vision
Some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
Taste Aversion
The learned avoidance of something through taste
Generalization
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
Discrimination
The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
Learned Helplessness
The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
