argumentative terms 1

Inductive reasoning

From the Latin inducere, “to lead into”; a logical process whereby the writer reasons from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also called a generalization

Deductive reasoning

A logical process whereby one reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise). This process is usually demonstrated in the form of a syllogism

Claim (assertion of proposition)

States the argument’s main idea or position. This differs from a topic or a subject in that this has to be arguable.

Claim of fact

Asserts that something is true or not true

Claim of policy

Proposes a change

Claim of value

Argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong

Fallacy

Potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument. They often arise from a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support it

Quantitative evidence

Includes thing a that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers—for instance, statistics, surveys, polls, census information

Rogerian arguments

These are based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating. Developed by psychiatrist Carl Rogers.

First-hand evidence

Evidence based on something, the writer knows whether it’s from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events

Second-hand evidence

Evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. It includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data.

Syllogism

A logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion

Premise

A fundamental assumption or statement used as the basis for an argument, story, or theory, from which a conclusion is drawn

Fallible

One that is susceptible to being mistaken or proven wrong

Infallible

A line of reasoning that is incapable of being wrong and guarantees a true conclusion

Veracity

The quality of being truthful, accurate, or honest

Toulmin Model of Argument

An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments “Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (warrant or assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation).” Created by British philosopher, Stephen Toulmin.

Backing

Further assurances or data without which the assumption lacks authority

Qualifier

Using words like usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, and most likely to temper the claim, making it less absolute

Rebuttal

Giving a voice to possible objections

Reservation

Explaining the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier

Warrant

Expressing the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience