the interview as a social interaction

• All interviews, whether structured or unstructured, are forms of s___ i____ between the interviewer and interviewee.

• what is the risk is

• In this way, social interactions can undermine the v___ of interview data.

• All interviews, whether structured or unstructured, are forms of social interaction between the interviewer and interviewee.

• The risk is that the interviewee’s responses may be shaped more by the social context (e.g., feeling pressured to give socially acceptable answers to impress the interviewer) than by the actual questions.

• In this way, social interactions can undermine the validity of interview data.

what are the 6 ways social interactions can threaten the validity of interviews

1. interviewer bias

2. artificiality

3. status and power inequalities

4. cultural differences

5. the social desirability effect

6. ethical issues

interviewer bias

• The interviewer may ask 'leading' questions, where the w____ 'tells' the interviewee how to answer.

• what is a leading question

• Interviewers may also c____ or u____ influence the answer by their f____ e___, b___ l____ or t___ of v___.

• (why is this is less of a danger in structured interviews)

• Another source of interviewer bias is where the interviewer i___¥ too c___ with the interviewees -for example, A____ O____ (1982) admits that, as a m___ herself, she found it difficult to remain d____ and n____ when interviewing who about what ?

interviewer bias

• The interviewer may ask 'leading' questions, where the wording 'tells' the interviewee how to answer.

• A leading question is a type of question that is worded in a way that suggests or pressures the respondent to give a particular answer, rather than allowing them to respond freely.

• Interviewers may also consciously or unconsciously influence the answer by their facial expression, body language or tone of voice.

• (This is less of a danger in structured interviews, because the interview schedule restricts the interviewer to a particular set of questions and fixed wording.)

• Another source of interviewer bias is where the interviewer identifies too closely with the interviewees -for example, Ann Oakley (1982) admits that, as a mother herself, she found it difficult to remain detached and neutral when interviewing other women about maternity and childbirth.

artificiality

• Even the most r____ of unstructured interviews is still an interview and not a n__ c____: both parties know it is an i___, in which one 's____' takes the i____ and asks the questions.

• Under these a____ conditions, it is sometimes d____ whether t___ answers can be o___

artificiality

• Even the most relaxed of unstructured interviews is still an interview and not a normal conversation: both parties know it is an interview, in which one 'side' takes the initiative and asks the questions.

• Under these artificial conditions, it is sometimes doubtful whether truthful answers can be obtained

status and power inequalities

• Inequalities between interviewer and interviewee may affect the interviewee's h____ or w____ to answer. In general, the bigger the status difference, the less v____ the data.

• For example, J____ R___ (1968) shows that when an___ interview c___, the child's need to what will affect their answers.

• Similarly, g____ differences in power can shape the interview, while e___ inequalities between interviewer and interviewee may make interviewing very difficult.

status and power inequalities

• Inequalities between interviewer and interviewee may affect the interviewee's honesty or willingness to answer. In general, the bigger the status difference, the less valid the data.

• For example, Josephine Rich (1968) shows that when adults interview children, the child's need to please the interviewer will affect their answers.

• Similarly, gender differences in power can shape the interview, while ethnic inequalities between interviewer and interviewee may make interviewing very difficult.

cultural differences

• These may also undermine validity.

• For example, there may be misunderstandings as a result of different meanings being given to the same words.

• The cultural gap may also mean that interviewers cannot tell when they are being lied to.

• For example, Margaret Mead's (1943) research on adolescents in Samoa in the western Pacific has been criticised on the grounds that Mead, who couldn't speak the language, was unable to spot that the girls she interviewed had deliberately misled her.

cultural differences

• These may also undermine v____.

• For example, there may be m____ as a result of different meanings being given to the same words.

• The cultural g___ may also mean that interviewers cannot tell when they are being lied to.

• For example, M___ M___ (1943) research on adolescents in S____ in the w Pacific has been criticised on the grounds that Mead, who couldn't speak the language, was unable to spot that the girls she interviewed had deliberately misled her

the social desirability

• In social interaction, people often seek to win a____. This may be even truer in an interview, where interviewees may be on their b__ b___ and give answers that present them in a f___ light.

• They may also wish not to appear i____ or u___ and so, instead of saying that they don't know or don't understand the question, they do what instead

the social desirability

• In social interaction, people often seek to win approval. This may be even truer in an interview, where interviewees may be on their best behaviour and give answers that present them in a favourable light.

• They may also wish not to appear ignorant or uninteresting and so, instead of saying that they don't know or don't understand the question, they offer any answer at all rather than none

ethical issues

• There are relatively few ethical problems with interviews,

• Nevertheless, because the interview is a social interaction, the interviewee may feel under some p____ to answer questions.

• Researchers should gain interviewees' i____ c____, guarantee a___ and make it clear that they have a right of wyat

• Interviews on s____ topics, or with v____ people, may also risk causing p____ h___.

ethical issues

• There are relatively few ethical problems with interviews,

• Nevertheless, because the interview is a social interaction, the interviewee may feel under some pressure to answer questions.

• Researchers should gain interviewees' informed consent, guarantee anonymity and make it clear that they have a right not to answer any of the questions that they do not wish to

• Interviews on sensitive topics, or with vulnerable people, may also risk causing psychological harm.

improving the validity of interviews

• Some researchers use techniques to improve what

• For example, to reduce the chance of interviewees doing what A___ K___ (1953) interviews on s___ b____ asked questions r___, giving intervewees little tfff to think, and used some q___ to check the answers given to others.

• f____-up i____ 18 months later were also used as a way of checking e___ answers.

improving the validity of interviews

• Some researchers use techniques to improve the chances of obtaining valid data.

• For example, to reduce the chance of interviewees making up answers or telling lies, Alfred Kinsey's (1953) interviews on sexual behaviour asked questions rapidly, giving intervewees little time to think, and used some questions to check the answers given to others.

• Follow-up interviews 18 months later were also used as a way of checking earlier answers.

improving the validity of interviews

• H____ B_____ (1971) developed another approach in his interviews with 60 c____ s___.

• He used a____, d___ and 'p___ d___' as ways of doing what

• However, the success of such tactics requires the researcher to have what- For the same reason, this approach might also prove difficult to r__5

improving the validity of interviews

• Howard Becker (1971) developed another approach in his interviews with 60 Chicago schoolteachers.

• He used aggression, disbelief and 'playing dumb' as ways of extracting sensitive information from them that they might not otherwise have revealed, about how they classified pupils in terms of their social class and ethnic background.

• However, the success of such tactics requires the researcher to have special skills. For the same reason, this approach might also prove difficult to replicate.

improving the validity of interviews

• Other researchers have overcome the problem of cultural differences by ensuring that interviewers are what

• For example, the interviews for J____ N___ (1997) survey of the health of B___ m___ e____ g__ were carried out in the l____ of the interviewee's choice.

improving the validity of interviews

• Other researchers have overcome the problem of cultural differences by ensuring that interviewers and interviewees are ethnically and language-matched.

• For example, the interviews for James Nazroo's (1997) survey of the health of Britain's minority ethnic groups were carried out in the language of the interviewee's choice.