AP PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 4.1-4.3e FLASHCARDS

Social psychology

Scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another

Person perception

Mental processes we use to form impressions of other people (based on traits, context, and own expectations)

Social categorization

Organizing people into groups based on shared characteristics

Implicit personality theory

General expectations about a person based on knowledge of one or more central traits

Mere exposure effect

Tendency to develop preference for things simply because they are familiar

Social comparison

Evaluating one’s abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

Relative deprivation

Perception that one is worse off compared to those with whom one compares oneself

Attribution theory

Explains behavior as caused either by internal disposition or external situation

Internal attribution

Explaining behavior as due to personal traits, motives, or attitudes

External attribution

Explaining behavior as due to situational or environmental factors

Fundamental attribution error

Tendency to underestimate situation and overestimate disposition when explaining others’ behavior

Actor-observer bias

Our behavior explained by situation, others’ behavior explained by disposition

Self-serving bias

Tendency to take credit for success and blame external factors for failures

Locus of control

Person’s sense of control over life events (internal = you control, external = environment controls)

Attitudes

Feelings, influenced by beliefs, that predispose reactions to objects, people, and events

Peripheral route persuasion

Persuasion using superficial cues (celebrity, attractiveness, emotion) rather than content

Central route persuasion

Persuasion based on logic, facts, and strength of arguments

Cognitive dissonance

Discomfort from inconsistency between attitudes and behavior; often resolved by changing attitudes

Foot-in-the-door technique

Getting people to agree to small requests first, then larger requests

Door-in-the-face technique

Asking for large request first (rejected), then smaller request (accepted)

Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment

Study where participants adopted roles of guards and prisoners; showed power of role-playing and deindividuation

Belief perseverance

Clinging to initial beliefs despite contrary evidence

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for and interpret info in ways that confirm beliefs

Halo effect

Tendency for one positive trait to influence overall impression of person

Social norms

Expected standards of conduct within a society or group

Normative social influence

Conforming to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Informational social influence

Conforming because we believe others’ interpretation of situation is accurate

Solomon Asch’s conformity experiment

Showed people conform to group opinion even when group is clearly wrong

Obedience

Following orders from authority figures

Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiment

Study where participants obeyed authority to deliver what they thought were painful shocks; showed power of authority

Group behavior

Behaviors that occur when individuals interact as part of a group

Social facilitation

Improved performance on simple tasks in presence of others

Social impairment

Worse performance on difficult tasks in presence of others

Social loafing

Tendency for people to exert less effort when working in groups

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and restraint in group situations fostering arousal and anonymity

Group polarization

Enhancement of group’s prevailing attitudes through discussion

Groupthink

When group members suppress dissent and prioritize harmony over realistic appraisal

Diffusion of responsibility

When responsibility is shared in a group, individuals feel less personally accountable

Bystander effect

Individuals are less likely to help when others are present

Altruism

Unselfish concern for others’ welfare without expectation of reward

Prosocial behavior

Actions intended to benefit others

Reciprocity norm

Expectation that people will help those who have helped them

Social responsibility norm

Belief that we should help those who depend on us

Conflict

Perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

Social trap

Situation where individuals pursue self-interest and become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Mirror-image perceptions

Mutual views held by conflicting groups, each seeing itself as good and the other as evil

Superordinate goals

Shared goals that override differences and require cooperation

GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction)

Strategy designed to decrease international tensions through small conciliatory acts

Attraction

Factors that draw people together

Proximity

Geographic closeness; increases liking due to exposure

Mere exposure effect (attraction)

Repeated exposure increases liking

Physical attractiveness

Influences first impressions, dating frequency, and perceived social skills

Similarity

People are more likely to be attracted to those with similar attitudes and interests

Companionate love

Deep affectionate attachment, often long-lasting

Passionate love

Intense arousal and absorption, typically early in relationships

Equity

Condition where people receive in proportion to what they give in a relationship

Self-disclosure

Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others, fostering closeness

Stereotype

Generalized belief about a group of people

Prejudice

Unjustifiable negative attitude toward a group and its members

Discrimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward group and its members

Implicit bias

Automatic, unconscious prejudice toward a group

Explicit bias

Conscious, openly expressed prejudice toward a group

Out-group

"Them"—those perceived as different or apart from in-group

In-group

"Us"—group with whom we share common identity

In-group bias

Favoring one’s own group over others

Out-group homogeneity bias

Tendency to see members of out-groups as more alike than members of in-groups

Scapegoat theory

Prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Just-world phenomenon

Belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Ethnocentrism

Belief in superiority of one’s own ethnic or cultural group