What is adolescence?
Growing up period between childhood and maturity from approximately ages 10-19 Adjusting to changing body size and shape Coming to terms with sexuality Adjusting to new ways of thinking Striving for emotional maturity and economic independence of adulthood
Puberty
7 year range for the onset of puberty Full process lasts about 4 years Puberty begins 2-3 years earlier for girls than boys Includes an average growth spurt of 10 inches, and 40 lbs Marked changes in hormone (testosterone and estradiol) levels
psychological aspects to puberty
Body image ā least satisfaction during puberty (Wright, 1989) Girls less satisfied than boys (Brooks-Gunn and Paikoff, 1993) Increased hormone levels related to changes in mood : males increased anger and irritability, females increased anger and depression
Stressful change hypothesis ā simmons and blyth, 1987
The intrinsic stress of pubertal change will cause distress during the period of most rapid change
Off time hypothesis (livson and peskin, 1980)
Events encountered earlier or later than expected will cause additional distress
Early-timing hypothesis (Statting and Magnusson,1990)
Early maturation may cause inappropriate maturity demands from others, causing distress
Girls who mature too early tend to be / have ā¦
Less sociable Lower self-esteem / poor body issues Spend more time with older peers who / are more likely to engage in risky behaviours Reach lower levels of educational attainment
Puberty timing in boys
Rates of depression similar among boys and girls in childhood
Girls are twice as likely to experience depression in adolescence
Gender gap in depression perists across lifespan
Pubertal processes hypothesised to play a role in the emergence of this gender gap
Parent-child relationships theories
ā adolescents individuate from their parents, becoming more emotionally and behaviourally independent (Freud 1946, Steinberg and Silverberg 1986)
ā the parent-child relationships changes over adolescence, leading to psychological independence with continued connectedness ( Youniss and Smollar 1985, Grotevant and Cooper 1986)
older adolescents and family -- Larson et al. 1996
Oldest adolescents spent less than half the time with family Alone time with parents did not decrease No correlation between time spent with family members and quality of family relationships Mediators of the decline in family time were external to the family system
Parenting and adolescent anxiety ā Gorostiaga et al., 2019
both psychological control and harsh control assocated with higher levels of anxiety Higher levels of parental warmth associated with lower levels of anxiety Association found between anxiety and familydysfuntion and overprotection
Identity in adolescence
ā puberty plays apart in provoking identity development during adolescence ā advances in cognitive development allow adolescents the opportunity for self-reflection ā three research traditions : Self-esteem Self-concept Identity formation
Self-esteem: theoretical approaches
James 1892: high self-esteem results from good performance in domains deemed important
Empirical work demonstrates this for individuals (Harter, 1999) and groups (Harter 1990)
Cooley 1902 : ālooking-glass selfā ā opinions of others are a large determinant of self-esteem
Harter 1987, 1990: additive model supported by data from older children and adolescents
Development of self-concept (Harter 1999)
ā shift from concrete to abstract self-portraits āshift from social comparisons and normative standards during childhood/early adolescence to internalised standards in adolescence ā shift towards differentiation of self into multiple domains ā integration of multiple sleeves into a unified self-concept
āImaginedā selves
ā Rogers , 1950 ā adolescents able to distinguish between actual/real and ideal selves Greatest discrepancy in middle adolescence ( Strachen ad Jones, 1982) ā Markus and Nurius , 1986 ā possible selves : balance between ideal and feared self ā Harter and Lee, 1989 ā true vs false selves,presentation dependent on audience ā Identity formation = task to describe self in terms of attributes (self-concept), but also within society
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
ā departed from Freudās teachings by emphasizing societal factors in the development ā contributed the theory of psychosocial development across the lifespan (1982) ā 8 stages, each with a specific crisis to resolve In adolescence the crisis is identity ā āconfidence in oneās inner continuity amid changeā (Erikson 1968)
Marciaās 4 statuses of identity (1980,1987,1994)
Achievement : individuals who after a period of exploration emerge with firm identity commitments Moratorium : the active period of exploration when individuals examine alternatives in an attempt to arrive at a choice Foreclosure : these individuals have adopted the identities prescribed by parents / other authorities Diffusion : individuals who have little sense of commitment and are not actively seeking to make decisions
parental influences (Grotevant and cooper, 1985; Papini, 1994)
Attachment wth freedom to voice opinions ā achievement or moratorium Overly closed bonds without separation ā foreclosure Low warmth without opening communication ā diffusion
archer 1989; waterman, 1985: cultural / historical influences
Secular towards later identity development Current historical events can alter course
Self-concept and life outcomes
positive :
general well-being
quality of life
confidence in actions and abilities
negative:
adjustment problems
externalizing problems
internalizing problems
self-concept and emotional disorders
strong relationship between emotional disorders and negative self-concept (Landa & Mozazz, 2008)
problems with self-perceptions are reflected in diagnostic criteria for anxiety and depression (APA , 2013)
positive self-concepts function as a protective facor in the development of emotional disorders (more resilient) (Landazaba et al., 2008)