AP Psychology Unit 3 Notes

Flashcards covering themes and methods in developmental psychology, physical development, gender, cognitive development, language, social-emotional development, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social/cognitive/neurological factors in learning.

Enduring Theme

Aspects of an individual that consistently appear throughout an individual's life.

Stability & Change

What stays the same and what changes over time. Example: The temperament of an individual or an individual's interests

Nature & Nurture

The role of genetics and environment in shaping behavior. Example: Genetic predispositions and cultural influences on a person's personality.

Continuous/Discontinuous stages

Whether growth is gradual or occurs in distinct phases. Example: Gradual skills acquired over time and cognitive milestones that happen as an individual gets older.

Continuous development

Gradual and ongoing changes that happen little by little over time.

Discontinuous development

Changes that occur in specific stages of life.

Cross-sectional research methods

Studying different groups of people at different ages all at the same time.

Longitudinal research methods

Research that studies the same group of people over a long period of time.

Teratogens

Harmful substances that can disrupt fetal development. Example: Alcohol, drugs, cigarettes, or other toxins.

Maternal Illness

Any health condition that can impact a woman's health and well-being during pregnancy. Example: Severe cases of influenza or hypertension.

Genetic Mutations

Abnormalities in a fetus's genes that can lead to developmental disorders or disabilities. Example: Down Syndrome, Turner Syndrome, or Sickle Cell Anemia.

Hormonal Factors

Imbalances in hormones can lead to atypical brain development, possibly impacting behavior and cognitive abilities. Example: Maternal stress can cause an overproduction of the hormone cortisol which can impact fetal development.

Environmental Factors

External factors that impact prenatal development such as maternal stress, malnutrition, or exposure to harmful environmental factors. Example: Pollutants, chemicals, teratogens, or physical trauma/injury.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A condition caused by a pregnant individual consuming alcohol during their pregnancy, leading to physical, behavioral, and cognitive impairments in the fetus.

Infant Reflexes

Involuntary movements that help with survival, present in newborns.

Palmar Grasp

When an object is placed in a baby's hand, the baby will instinctively close their fingers around it.

Babinski Reflex

When the sole of the baby's foot is stroked, their toes fan out and then curl inward.

Rooting Reflex

When a baby's cheek is touched, they turn their head toward the stimulus and open their mouth.

Gross Motor Skills

Involves larger movements, such as crawling and walking.

Fine Motor Skills

Involve smaller movements, such as holding a spoon.

Critical Period

A window of time during which an individual must be exposed to certain stimuli or experiences for normal development to occur.

Sensitive Period

A time when an individual is more receptive to learn certain skills, however, the individual can still learn the skill later in life.

Imprinting

When a newborn forms an attachment to the first moving object they see, this is seen in animals such as some birds.

Puberty

Life event that transitions an individual from childhood to adolescence

Primary Sex Characteristics

Characteristics that are directly related to the reproductive system (Example: Development of ovaries, or testes)

Menarche

The first time a woman menstruates.

Spermarche

The first time a man ejaculates.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Characteristics that are indirectly related to reproduction (Example: Growth of body hair, or changing of a person's voice)

Menopause

This is the end of a woman's menstrual cycle and ability to conceive, this typically occurs in middle adulthood.

Sex

The biological differences between men and women.

Gender

Refers to the social, physical, and behavioral traits that are considered normal for men and women.

Gender Schema Theory

The ability for children to create mental categories for masculinity and femininity.

Socialization Factors

Family, school, peer groups, and media

Homosexual

A person is attracted to the same sex

Heterosexual

A person is attracted to the opposite sex

Bisexual

A person is attracted to both sexes

Assimilation

When new information is put into an existing schema.

Accommodation

When an individual changes or modifies a schema to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor

Child gains access to their hands and begins to move. The child learns to make things happen and starts to develop object permanence

Preoperational

Child learns to use language but will struggle with concepts such as conservation. Here a child starts off as egocentric but will develop the theory of the mind

Concrete operational

Children start to think logically. Children can start to understand conservation and more complex topics, such as mathematics and reversibility

Formal operational

Here an individual can think about hypothetical situations or questions, and apply logic to different situations. Individuals here also have moral reasoning

Object Permanence

This is the ability for an individual to understand that an object continues to exist even when the object is out of sight.

Egocentric

An individual can only see their OWN perspective and will assume that other people see the world as they do.

Theory Of The Mind

An individual understands that other people have their own thoughts,feelings, and perspectives that are different from their own.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects have feelings, thoughts, or other human characteristics.

Classification

This is the ability to organize objects based on multiple attributes, such as sorting objects by color and shape simultaneously.

Seriation

This is the ability to arrange items in a quantitative order, such as organizing sticks from shortest to longest.

Conservation

The idea that properties such as volume and mass remain the same, even if they are transferred into different containers.

Reversibility

A mental operation where an individual can reverse a sequence of events.

Sociocultural Theory

This theory highlights the role of social interaction, culture, and language in cognitive development. The idea is that learning is a social process that can be enhanced when interacting with others.

Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development

The zone of proximal development is what a child can learn with the assistance of another individual. If a concept is outside of the zone of proximal development it will be too difficult for the child to learn, even with assistance.

Scaffolding

When an individual provides support and guides a child to an understanding of unfamiliar concepts. This is often used in a teaching environment, with the goal being to help expand an individual's knowledge or skills.

Crystallized Intelligence

The accumulation of knowledge, facts, and skills acquired through experience and education.

Fluid Intelligence

The individual's ability to reason quickly, think abstractly, and adapt to new situations.

Dementia

This is a broad term for cognitive disorders that significantly impair memory, reasoning, and other mental abilities.

Language

A system of communication that uses symbols, such as words, sounds, or gestures.

Phonemes

Distinct units of sound in a language, often the first sounds an infant will make. Example: The mmm in mom, or the shhh in shut

Morphemes

The smallest unit of meaning, containing a minimum of 2 phonemes. Example: Root words or prefixes

Semantics

The meaning of words and sentences (involves understanding how words and phrases relate to each other). Example: Bank can mean a financial institution or the side of a river (Context matters)

Grammar

A set of rules that the language follows. Example: This is what enables people to communicate and understand the meaning of different sentences

Syntax

The rules that are used to order words in a sentence. Example: In English adjectives are put before nouns

Surface Structure Semantics

The literal meaning of words.

Deep Structure Semantics

The underlying meaning of a sentence.

Generative

Language allows for the creation of an infinite number of sentences and ideas.

Cooing Stage

During this stage, infants begin to make simple vowel sounds.

Babbling Stage

Infants start their speech development. Start making consonant vowel sounds.

One-word stage

Child is able to say one word but the word has a larger meaning.

Telegraphic Speech Stage

Child starts to use two-word phrases.

Holophrase

This is a single word that conveys a larger meaning.

Overgeneralizes

This is when an individual applies general rules that they are learning to broadly, resulting in them applying the rule in an incorrect manner.

Microsystem

Immediate environment. Example: Interactions with parents, teachers, and friends.

Mesosystem

Connection between the groups within the microsystem. Example: How an individual's parents interact with the individual's teacher

Exosystem

Indirect factors that impact an individual's life. Example: Parent working late at the office results in the child not having as much parental involvement.

Macrosystem

Social and cultural values. Example: Cultural values, social norms, and government policies influence an individual.

Chronosystem

Time, including the individual's current stage of life and the historical context in which they live. Example: Teenagers today experience development differently then teenagers 50 years ago.

Ecological Systems Theory

An individual's development is influenced by both their immediate relationships and the broader social and cultural forces. Highlighting that development is not solely genetics, but is also the results of environmental factors.

Authoritarian

Parents set strict rules and expect their children to follow every rule without explaining their reasoning. Children can't ask questions.

Permissive

Parents are loose with the rules and do not demand much from their children. Little to no limits are set for children.

Negligent

Parents are completely uninvolved in their children's lives. (Do not play an active role in the child's life).

Authoritative

Parents set expectations for children and do enforce rules, but encourage discussion and dialogue. (Will explain the reason for rules.)

Secure Attachment

The child feels safe and supported by their caregiver. The child will feel confident to explore their environment and will seek comfort from their caregiver if they become distressed.

Avoidant Attachment

The child tends to avoid or ignore their caregiver, showing little emotion when the caregiver leaves them or returns to them.

Anxious Attachment

Also known as ambivalent or resistant attachment. Here the child is overly dependent on their caregiver and shows extreme distress when separated.

Disorganized Attachment

The child show confusing or contradictory behaviors, often due to the child being exposed to inconsistent or possibly even frightening care.

Temperament

An individual's natural biologically based patterns of emotional reactivity.

Separation Anxiety

Heightened distress, fear, or anxiety when they are separated from the caregivers.

Parallel Play

When a child plays alongside another child without interaction directly with the other child.

Pretend Play

When a child uses their imagination to act out scenarios with toys, objects, and other children.

Ecocentrism

The inability to see a situation or understand the world from another person's perspective.

Imaginary Audience

The belief that an individual is constantly being watched and judged by others.

Personal Fable

The belief that an individual is unique and that no one else can fully understand what they're going through.

Social Clock

Societal expectations about when major life events should happen.

Emerging Adulthood

This is a transitional stage that a person in their mid-twenties goes through, this is when they start to explore different career paths, relationships, and better refine their identity.

Adverse childhood experience (ACE)

A traumatic or challenging event that occurred during a person's childhood, such as abuse or neglect.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Feeding, affection, and security are the important life events. If the child has all of those things they will form secure attachments, if they do not they may develop insecure attachments

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

Child starts to separate items in the environment, understands what is theirs and what is someone else's. Important life events include potty training. Positive reinforcement is key, this allows the child to develop confidence and autonomy

Initiative vs. Guilt

Child becomes social and will ask lots of questions. Children need to have some control over different aspects of their life, independent activities are key. If a child is not allowed independence it could cause the child to question their ability

Industry vs. Inferiority

School becomes one of the most important events in the child's life. Children start to make their own decisions, and grapple with the concept of good and bad. Children also start identify with different social factors such as wealth

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Peer groups become extremely important, individuals seek friendships and will conform to those friendships. Individuals start to solidify their role in society and seek to understand their own identity. If an individual can not understand their place in the world it can cause an individual to feel lost