Social Psychology Exam 2

attribution theory (Fritz Heider)

a description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior

internal attribution

the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality

external attribution

the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the situation they're in, with the assumption that most people would respond the same way in that situation

covariation model (Harold Kelley)

theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we note the pattern between when the behavior occurs and the presence or absence of possible causal factors

consensus information

extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as an actor does

distinctiveness information

the extent to which one particular actor behaves the same way to different stimuli

consistency information

the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances

two-step attribution process (Daniel Gilbert)

analyzing behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behavior (characterization --> connection)

self-serving attribution

explanations for one's successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors

belief in a just world

a defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people

bias blind spot

the tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases in their thinking than we are

perception salience

the seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention

self-concept

the overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes

interdependent view of the self

a way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people, recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others

introspection

the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives

self-awareness theory

the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values

causal theories

theories about the causes of one's own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture

self-perception theory

the theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer that these states occur by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs

two-factor theory of emotion

the idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and the seek an appropriate explanation for it

misattribution of arousal

the process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do

intrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures

extrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy it or find it interesting

over justification effect

the tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons

task-contingent rewards

rewards given for performing a task, regardless of how well it's done

performance-contingent rewards

rewards based on how well we perform a task

fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

growth mindset

the idea that achievement is the result of working hard, trying new strategies, and seeking input from others

social comparison theory (Leon Festinger)

the idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

upward social comparison

comparing ourselves to other people who are better than we are with regards to a certain trait or ability

downward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regards to a particular trait or ability

self-control

the ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long term goals

implementation intentions

people's specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal and avoid temptations

impression management

the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen

ingratiation

process by whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status

self-handicapping

strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves

attitudes

evaluations of people, objects, and ideas

cognitively based attitude

an attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object

affectively based attitude

an attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object

classical conditioning

the phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that doesn't, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus

operant conditioning

the phenomenon whereby behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward or punishment

behaviorally based attitude

an attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object

explicit attitudes

attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report

implicit attitudes

attitudes that exist outside of conscious awareness

attitude accessibility

the strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object

theory of planned behavior

the idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control

persuasive communication

a message advocating a particular side of an issue

Yale attitude change approach

the study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source, communication, and audience's nature

elaboration likelihood model

model explaining the 2 ways persuasive communication can cause change: centrally and peripherally

central route to persuasion

when people both have the ability and the motivation to elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the argument

peripheral route persuasion

when people don't elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication, but are instead swayed by more superficial cues

fear-arousing communication

persuasive message that attempts to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears

heuristic-systematic model of persuasion

An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts or heuristics

subliminal messages

words or pictures that aren't consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence judgments, attitudes, and behaviors

attitude inoculation

making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their positions

reactance theory

the idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of resistance if aroused, which they can reduce by performing the prohibited behavior

independent self

a self defined in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions

the sleeper effect

an initially discounted persuasive message becomes more persuasive after a delay