Metaethics

Johnson. 24-25.

Ayer’s principle of verification

The principle that an ethical proposition is only true or false if it can be empirically verified or confirmed through direct, sensory experience or through logical analysis.

Is-Ought Problem

The challenge of moving from describing how the world “is” to asserting how it “ought” to be in ethical reasoning.

Prescriptivism

Ethical theory that states that moral judgements have a prescriptive nature of prescribing behavior with a list of dos and/or don’ts, instead of merely describing it.

Ethical Non-Realism

The content here discusses the idea that moral values are not grounded in any external, objective reality.

Objection to Relativism: Human Rights and Logical Outcomes

Critics argue that relativism can lead to illogical consequences, such as justifying heinous actions simply because they are culturally accepted, highlighting the flaws in purely relativistic views.

Objection to Subjectivism: Moral Progress

One objection to ethical subjectivism concerns the possibility of moral progress and improvement over time.

Non-cognitivism

The belief that moral statements do not convey factual information and are neither true nor false.

Emotivism

The theory that moral statements are expressions of emotions and cannot be verified.

Ex: “murder is wrong” is really “Boo! Murder!”

Intuitionism

The idea that moral principles are known intuitively through reason or moral sense, self-evident.

Cognitivism

The view that moral statements can be true or false and express beliefs about the world.

Ideal Observer

A hypothetical impartial observer who determines what is moral based on detached, rational judgement.

Objection to Objectivism: Knowledge Acquisition

Objectors raise questions about standards on how individuals can acquire knowledge of these supposed objective moral facts.

A.J. Ayer’s Ethical Position

Emotivism and the rejection of objective moral truths. Logical positivist.

Ethical Relativism

The theory that ethical judgements are relative to cultural beliefs and values.

Natural Law

The theory that ethical principles are inherent in the natural world and can be discovered through reason.

Objection to Subjectivism: Moral Disagreement

Ethical subjectivism faces criticism regarding how to resolve and understand conflicting moral viewpoints and disagreements.

Objection to Objectivism: Lack of verifiability

Critics claim that objectivism cannot definitively prove the existence of objective moral truths.

Ethical Egoism

The ethical theory that individuals should act in ways that maximize their own self-interest.

Objection to Relativism: Logical Inherent Contradictions

Asserting no universal truths but all of us should adopt relativism as the “right” approach to ethical judgements, which is contradictory logic.

Altruism

Behavior that benefits others at one’s own expense, thought to be advantageous survival mechanism by evolutionary ethicists.

Moral/Ethical Pluralism

The belief that there are multiple systems of ethical principles that are equally valid and may have some things in common.

Ethical Objectivism

The theory that certain moral principles are universally valid and apply to all individuals, judging the act itself.

Ethical Subjectivism

The concept that morality is relative to individual feelings or beliefs.

Ethical Realism

The view that moral truths are derived from external properties.

Hume’s “Is-Ought” Problem

David Hume’s claim that we cannot observe, “This is the way we act” to derive a moral claim, “This is how we ought to act” not verifiable.

Objection to Objectivism: Rigidity

Some argue that ethical objectivism leads to rigidity and fails to account for cultural and situational differences.

Ruth Benedict

An American anthropologist known for her work on the relationship between culture and personality, and her book ‘Patterns of Culture’ which explores how customs, beliefs, and practices shape human behavior.

Objection to Relativism: Moral Progression

Relativism can be objected on the grounds of moral progression, where societies can evolve morally over time, indicating an objective moral standard that transcends cultural differences.

Supernaturalism

The belief that moral rules and values and derived from a divine source such as God or another deity.

Objection to Subjectivism: Accountability

Critics of ethical subjectivism raise questions regarding moral accountability and the basis for holding individuals responsible for their actions.