Unit 2: Psychology

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to
understand the environment

● Bottom-Up Processing

Perception that begins with sensory input and builds up
to a higher level of understanding

● Top-Down Processing

Perception guided by prior knowledge, experiences, and
expectations

● Schemas

Mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information

● Perceptual Set

A predisposition to perceive things in a certain way based on
expectations

● Attention

The ability to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others

● Selective Attention

Focusing on one stimulus while filtering out others

● Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on one conversation in a noisy
environment while still noticing personally relevant stimuli

● Inattentional Blindness

Failing to notice an unexpected object because attention
is focused elsewhere

● Change Blindness

Failing to detect changes in a visual scene

● Gestalt Psychology

A psychological approach emphasizing that the whole is
greater than the sum of its parts

● Closure

The tendency to mentally fill in gaps to perceive a complete image

● Figure and Ground

The ability to distinguish an object (figure) from its
background (ground)

● Proximity

The tendency to group nearby objects together

● Similarity

The tendency to group objects that look similar

● Binocular Cues

Depth perception cues that rely on both eyes

● Retinal Disparity

The slight difference between the images seen by each eye,
helping with depth perception

● Monocular Cues

Depth cues that require only one eye

● Relative Clarity

Objects that appear hazier are perceived as farther away

● Relative Size

Smaller objects are perceived as farther away if they are expected to
be of similar size

● Texture Gradient

A gradual change in texture that signals increasing distance

● Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance

● Interposition

When one object overlaps another, the overlapping object appears
closer

● Perceptual Constancies

Recognizing objects as unchanging despite changes in
lighting, distance, or angle

● Apparent Motion

The perception of movement in a stationary object due to visual
cues

● Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

● Prototype

The best example of a category

● Schema

A mental framework that organizes and interprets information

● Assimilation

Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas

● Accommodation

Adjusting schemas to incorporate new information

● Executive Functions

Higher-order cognitive processes involved in
decision-making and self-control

● Algorithm

A step-by-step problem-solving procedure that guarantees a correct
solution

● Heuristic

A mental shortcut used to solve problems quickly

● Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of something based on how
well it matches a prototype

● Availability Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily
examples come to mind

● Mental Set

The tendency to approach problems in a familiar way

● Priming

The activation of certain associations in memory before exposure to a
stimulus

● Framing

The way an issue is presented, which can influence decisions

● Gambler’s Fallacy

The belief that past random events influence future ones

● Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing an endeavor due to previously invested resources,
even when it is no longer rational

● Functional Fixedness

The inability to see an object being used in a way other than
its typical use

● Creativity

The ability to generate novel and valuable ideas

● Divergent Thinking

Thinking that generates multiple solutions to a problem

● Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down multiple solutions to find the best one

● Explicit Memory

Conscious, intentional recollection of facts and experiences

● Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences and events

● Semantic Memory

Memory of general knowledge and facts

● Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory of skills and conditioned behaviors

● Procedural Memory

Memory of how to perform tasks

● Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform a task in the future

● Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of neural connections through
repeated activation

● Working Memory

Active processing of incoming information and retrieval from
long-term memory

● Visuospatial Sketchpad

A component of working memory that processes visual
and spatial information

● Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent storage of information

● Multi-Store Model

A memory model dividing memory into sensory, short-term,
and long-term storage

● Sensory Memory

The brief retention of sensory information

● Central Executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and
manages cognitive tasks

● Phonological Loop

A component of working memory that processes verbal and
auditory information

● Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory

● Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory

● Shallow Processing

Encoding information based on surface features

● Deep Processing

Encoding information based on meaning, leading to better
retention

● Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information

● Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires conscious effort

● Encoding

The process of converting information into a memory trace

● Storing

Retaining encoded information over time

● Retrieval

Accessing stored information

● Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids that use imagery and organization

● Method of Loci

Associating information with specific locations to improve recall

● Chunking

Organizing information into manageable units

● Categories

Grouping information to aid memory

● Hierarchies

Structuring information from broad to specific concepts

● Spacing Effect

The tendency to retain information better when study sessions
are spaced out

● Massed Practice

Cramming information in a short period

● Distributed Practice

Studying information over time for better retention

● Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list
better than the middle ones

● Primacy Effect

Better recall for items at the beginning of a list

● Recency Effect

Better recall for items at the end of a list

● Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to remember past events

● Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories

● Alzheimer’s Disease

A degenerative brain disorder causing memory loss

● Infantile Amnesia

The inability to recall memories from early childhood

● Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that aid memory recall

● Context-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when in the same environment as
when learning occurred

● Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall memories consistent with one’s
mood

● State-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when in the same physiological state
as during encoding

● Testing Effect

Improved memory through retrieval practice

● Metacognition

Thinking about one’s own thinking processes

● Forgetting Curve

The pattern of rapid initial forgetting followed by slower
decline

● Encoding Failure

The inability to transfer information into long-term memory
due to lack of attention or rehearsal

● Proactive Interference

When old information disrupts the recall of newly learned
information

● Retroactive Interference

When new information interferes with the recall of
previously learned information

● Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

The temporary inability to recall a word or piece
of information despite knowing it

● Ego

In Freud’s theory, the rational part of the mind that balances the demands of
the id and superego

● Repression

The unconscious blocking of distressing thoughts and memories from
conscious awareness

● Misinformation Effect

The distortion of memory due to exposure to misleading
information after an event

● Source Amnesia

Forgetting where or how a memory was acquired, leading to
confusion between real and imagined experiences

● Constructive Memory

A memory that has been influenced by expectations,
suggestions, or new information, rather than a direct recall of events

● Memory Consolidation

The process by which memories become stable and stored
in long-term memory

● Imagination Inflation

The increased likelihood of believing a false or distorted
memory after imagining it multiple times