PSYCH U3AOS2 - memory & learning

define learning

a relatively permeant change in behavior due to experience

define conditioning

the learning of an association between a stimulus in the environment (one event) and a behavior response (another event)

classical conditioning

is a simple form of learning which occurs through repeated association of two or more different stimulus in a three-phase response

3 key points about classical conditioning

• the learner is passive

• the behavior is involuntary

• the behavior occurs after the stimulus

3 phases of classical conditioning

1. before conditioning

2. during conditioning

3. after conditioning

phase 1 of classical conditioning

BEFORE CONDITIONING

• neutral stimulus produces no relevant response (this occurs a fraction before)

• Then the unconditioned stimulus then creates an unconditioned response

phase 2 of classical conditioning

DURING CONDITIOING

repeated parings of the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus provide the unconditioned response

phase 3 of classical conditioning

AFTER CONDITIONING

neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus which now consistently produces a conditioned response

(which is the same of similar to the unconditioned response)

define operant conditioning

a learning process which the likelihood of a particular behavior occurring i determined by the consequences of that behavior

3 key points of operant conditioning

1. the learner is ACTIVE

2. the behavior is VOLENTARY

3. the behavior is BEFORE the response

examples of operant conditioning

1. you study for a SAC to get a good score

2. your drive at the speed limit to avoid a fine

3 phases of operant conditioning & acronym

ABC

1. Antecedent

2. Behavior

3. Consequence

operant ABC examples

a - psychology exam / rumbly tummy / earn money

b - lots of study / eat a burger / spend it all

c - good score / satisfied / broke

reinforcement will increase behavior / punishment decrease

types of consequences / operant

1. positive reinforcement

2. negative reinforcement

3. positive punishment

4. negative punishment

what’s reinforcement / operant

usually results in increased behavior / usually good

what’s punishment / operant

usually results in decreased behavior / usually bad

what’s positive / operant

weather punishment or reinforcement this means adding something

Example = Positive reinforcement means getting a good grade or earning a star on the star chart.

Positive punishment teacher giving you extra homework or run an extra lap of the oval

what’s negative / operant

weather punishment or reinforcement this means taking away something

Example = Negative reinforcement means driving slowly to avoid ticket or taking medicine to remove headache.

Negative punishment may mean teacher giving you detention (taking time) or losing your license due to being on your phone

what’s more effective reinforcement or punishment

reinforcement is more effective, as punishment can lead to:

• increased anger, rebellion, hostility and lies

• as well as inappropriate physical behavior

consequence can be impacted by (3)

1. order of presentation - reinforcement must occur after response not before so learner understand the “consequence”

2. timing - reinforcement or punishment needs to be close in time to behavior so learner associated behavior with consequence not other factors

3. appropriateness of reinforcement/punishment - a reinforcement must be satisfying and punishment must be unpleasant

operant vs classical conditioning

OPERANT

• learner is ACTIVE

• behavior is VOLENTARY (not reflexive)

• behavior is BEFORE stimulus / consequences

  
  

CLASSICAL

• learner is PASSIVE

• behavior is INVOLENTARY (reflexive)

• behavior is AFTER stimulus / consequences

define observational learning

is learning by observing the actions of others and their consequences to guide future behavior

explain the conditions of the learner & learning of observational learning

The learner is ACTIVE and AWARE of future (more than classical and operant)

Learning occurs by observing the actions and consequences

Learning can occur without immediate change (LATENT) – change may occur later in time

role model in observational learning

the person being observed is called the model.

• they can be live or symbolic (real or cartoon)

• the more similar and respected the model / their characteristics are to the observer the more likely they are to pay attention

consequence of model (observational learning)

the consequence the model receives will influence the likelihood of behavior being copied

• Reinforcement = more likelihood behavior will be repeated by observer

• punishment = less likelihood behavior will be repeated by observer

5 stages of observational learning

attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement

define stage 1 of observational learning

attention - the learner must actively attend to the behavior they are observing (actively pay attention)

define stage 2 of observational learning

retention - the learnt behavior must be stored as a mental representation (stored as a memory)

• a learnt behavior may not be needed straight away that’s why memory is stored (latent)

define stage 3 of observational learning

reproduction - the learner must have the physical and intellectual ability to reproduce what has been observed

define stage 4 of observational learning

motivation - the learner must be motivated and want to copy the learnt behavior

• this will depend on consequence (reinforcement / punishment)

define stage 5 of observational learning

reinforcement - the prospect of the positive reward will increase the likelihood that the behavior will be copied

list the 3 types of reinforcement for observational learning

1. external reinforcement

2. self-reinforcement

3. vicarious reinforcement

define and example of external reinforcement in observational learning

this reinforcement can come from the mentor or a third party and makes the learner more motivated to copy the behavior

example = a reward or promotion

define and example of self-reinforcement in observational learning

this reinforcement comes from the learner themselves

example = pride or happiness

define and example of vicarious reinforcement in observational learning

this reinforcement is indirect

example = the learner sees someone else getting praised or rewarded for tying their shoes

sim and diff of operant and observational learning

sim

• the learner is active in both

• the consequence influences the likelihood of the behavior being repeated (vicarious / operant)

diff

• in operant learning is through direct experiences whereas observational learning is indirect through others experience

• in operant the learning is observable by others where as observational learning behavior may not have been demonstrated yet (latent) not observable

define memory

the processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning

3 fundamental processes of memory

1. encoding

2. storage

3. retrieval

define encoding

conversion of information into usable form so it can be neurologically represented in memory

define storage

retention of encoded information

define retrieval

recovery of stored information/ bringing it into conscious awareness

what is the atkinson-shiffrin multi-store model of memory

is a model which suggests that there are 3 seperate memory stores which operate simultaneously

the 3 memory stores of the atkinson-shiffrin multi-store model of memory

1. sensory memory

2. short term memory

3. long term memory

function of sensory memory

receives sensory information from the environment.

enables perceptual continuity of the world around us

capacity of sensory memory

vast and potentially unlimited

duration of sensory memory

0.2-4 seconds

2 sensory registers in sensory memory

1. iconic

2. echoic

what’s the iconic memory (role/duration/capacity)

• role: stores visual information for a moment

• duration: of 1/3 seconds

• capacity: unlimited but fades instantly unless we pay attention to it

what’s the echoic memory (role/duration/capacity)

• role: stores auditory information for a moment

• duration: of 3-4 seconds

• capacity: unlimited but fades instantly unless processed

example of iconic memory

if somebody waves a sparkler in the dark, you briefly see the glowing trail, iconic memory is holding onto the image for a second before it disappears

example of echoic memory

if someone asks what did i just say, and u can repeat it even though you weren’t fully paying attention that’s the echoic memory at work

function of short term memory (2)

• receives information from sensory memory and transfers it to and from the long term memory

• maintains information from conscious awareness for immediate use

capacity of short term memory

7 ± pieces of information (5 to 9)

duration of short term memory

• temporary of about 18 to 20 seconds capacity / possibly 30

• longer if renewed via maintenance rehearsal or working memory

what’s maintenance rehearsal in short term memory

repeating information over and over helps keep it in short term memory for longer

what’s working memory in short term memory

STM is sometimes called working memory because it actively processes information rather than just storing it

function of long term memory

stores information for re-access and later use

capacity of long term memory

vast and potentially unlimited

duration of long term memory (3)

• potentially permanent

• some information may be lost or become inaccessible

• indefinite duration

types of long term memory and if they are conscious

1. explicit (declarative) memory - things you consciously remember

2. implicit (non-declarative) memory - things you remember unconsciously

subcategories of explicit (declarative) memory & examples for each

• episodic memory - personal experience (example = your birthday last year)

• semantic memory - facts and knowledge (example = knowing that water boils at 100 degrees)

subcategories of implicit (non-declarative) memory & examples for each

• procedural memory - skills and habits (example = riding a bike, playing an instrument)

• classically conditioned response - automatic reactions (example = feeling nervous before a test)

what brain structures encode semantic memory & where is it stored

EXPLICIT MEMORY

encoded by:

1. amygdala (encodes emotional part)

2. hippocampus (situational details)

stored by: neocortex

what brain structures encode episodic memory & where is it stored

EXPLICIT MEMORY

encoded by:

1. amygdala (encodes emotional part)

2. hippocampus (situational details)

stored by: neocortex

what brain structures encode classically conditioned memory & where is it stored

IMPLICIT MEMORY

encoded by:

1. amygdala (encodes emotional part)

2. hippocampus (situational details)

stored by: basal ganglia

what brain structures encode procedural memory & where is it stored

IMPLICIT MEMORY

encoded by:

1. cerebellum

2. basal ganglia

stored by: cerebellum

how we forget information

• lack of retrieval cues

• interference

• memory decay

strengths and weaknesses of the atkinson-shiffrin model

pros

• the model distinguishes between the different stores involved in memory

• the model outlines that each memory store has a different capacity and function

cons

• may be considered over-simplified

• doesn’t account for individual differences in memory processes, storage duration and capacity

explain the Atkinson Shiffrin multi store model - use diagram as step by step process (9)

1. sensory information coming in

2. into sensory memory

3. not attended to / lost

4. attended to goes into short term memory

5. rehearsal stays in short term memory (loops)

6. not rehearsed, lost from STM

7. encoding transfers information into long term memory

8. retrieval of information from LTM allows it to renter STM

9. some information may be lost or inaccessible from LTM

label the parts of the brain responsible for recording explicit memories (2)

1. hippocampus

2. amygdala

what does the hippocampus do

allows us to remember the details of what happened (when, where and who with it occurred)

only used for explicit (episodic and semantic) not implicit memory

process of storing a memory / adrenaline / amygdala

when experiencing high emotions and heightened arousal, adrenaline is released.

this induces the release of noradrenaline in the amygdala, this stimulates the hippocampus to encode the situational details, while the amygdala also encode the emotional information about how you are feeling

what’s the neocortex

part of the brain that covers the four lobes (frontal, occipital, temporal, parietal)

responsible in storing explicit memories (within their certain sections) that are created by the amygdala & hippocampus

how are memories sorted into different sections

stored relevant to what part of the memory it relates too.

for example, an image of what a dog looks like would be stored in the occipital lobe (eyes) but what a dog may sound like will be stored in the temporal lobe

role of the basal ganglia

encodes and stored implicit memories (procedural and classically conditioned reflexes)

reflexes learnt through classically conditioning like jumping up and running away from a spider are encoded by this part

role of cerebellum

encoded and stores implicit procedural memories

• as well as controls fine muscle movement, regulates posture and balance

what does the amygdala release

releases ‘noradrenaline’ which signals to the hippocampus to begin encoding situational details and also encoding the emotional details of the situation

3 ways to improve memory processes

1. maintenance rehearsal

2. elaborative rehearsal

3. chunking

what’s maintenance rehearsal

repeating new information over and over again to keep it in STM for as long as possible

what’s elaborative rehearsal

meaningfully linking new information to information that is already stored in LTM

what’s chunking

group smaller chunks of information into larger chunks to hold more information in STM

maintenance rehearsal example

repeating a phone number over and over in your head until you can write it down

elaborative rehearsal example

remembering the name of a co-worker by relating it so somebody else you know, like… her name is Pippa and I know that because that’s also my sisters name.

chunking example

remembering a 10 digit number is harder so instead we group in into smaller sections (0423 292 246)

autobiographical memory

the retrieval of autobiographical events involves both episodic and semantic memories

example = episodic includes how we felt as we unwrapped our presents or the conversations we had where as semantic memories is where we had Christmas or who was there.

autobiographical memories in constructing possible futures

when we imagine we are creating fictional scenarios or possible futures by using our stored long term episodic and semantic memories to help us construct an imagined future

alzheimer’s disease

is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by the progressive loss of neurons in the brain

alzheimer’s disease symptoms

• memory loss

• decrease in cognitive function

• difficulty with communication

• changes in mood

• frequently becoming confused or disoriented

where does alzheimer’s disease begin

in the hippocampus

hippocampus damage and alzheimer’s disease

it begins in the hippocampus and spreads from there.

damage in this area means people with alzheimer’s disease have trouble retrieving both semantic and episodic memories… also meaning they cant construct possible futures

what are the 2 main lesions in alzheimer’s disease

1. amyloid plaques

2. neurofibrillary tangles

what’s amyloid plaque

fragments of beta-amyloid protein which accumulates into plaque which inhibits communication between neurons

what’s neurofibrillary tangles

accumulation of tau protein into tangles preventing transportation of essential substances

• eventually killing the neuron

aphantasia

is the inability to generate mental imagery

aphantasia example

when asked to think of a pink elephant they will be unable to produce the mental image of the elephant and see the color pink, but they will still be able to think of it

how do we create visual representations

we draw on both stored semantic and episodic memories

symptoms of aphantasia

• may not be able to visualize rich episodic memories

• their semantic memories will likely lack visual detail

• has trouble retrieving autobiographical events

• have difficulty constructing imagined futures

define mnemonics

devices or techniques used to increase the encoding, storage and retrieval of information

list the 3 mnemonics

1. acronyms

2. acrostics

3. method of loci

define acronyms

a form of mnemonics when the first letters of items form a pronounce word which make them easier to remember