The Revolution from October 1789 to the Directory, 1795

When did the deputies representing the Third Estate (the communes) rename themselves the National Assembly?

17th June 1789

What was the significance of the Communes renaming itself the National Assembly?

The representatives of the Third Estate in the old Estates General claimed the right to govern, not simply attend a royal council.

When did the National Assembly change its name to the Constituent Assembly?

9th July 1789

What was the significance of the National Assembly renaming itself the Constituent Assembly?

This name added another function - that of making a constitution for France, as the members had sworn to do at the Tennis Court Oath on 20th June.

What function/task did the Constituent Assembly fulfill?

- Until it ended in September 1791, the Constituent Assembly passed a body of reforms that transformed France and culminated in a new written constitution establishing a constitutional monarchy. It then gave way to the newly elected Legislative Assembly.
- Measures were taken to ensure that the government of France should be efficient and uniform. The network of privileges was swept away.

What was the composition of the Constituent Assembly like?

- It had over 1,100 members.
- It was dominated by highly educated, middle-class deputies (over 600), compared to 278 nobles and 295 clergy.

How did the reforms in France align with other periods of reform in Europe?

- In England, William Pitt introduced financial and administrative reforms from 1784, reforming taxation and reducing corruption. He promoted trade and supported progressive causes like the end of the slave trade.
- Frederick the Great of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria and Catherine the Great of Russia were known for their 'enlightened despotism' - they passed some reforms and were interested in new Enlightenment ideas, but were not prepared to share their power, and all imposed reform from above, rather than developing representative government or parliaments.
- There was a general movement towards better and more uniform administration; more efficient finance; more humane justice.
- In Prussia and Austria, serfdom was abolished.
- There were reductions in the power of the Church in Austria.
- However, other countries had introduced reforms from the top down, while Louis had been forced into change by political pressure, financial weakness and popular unrest. Thus France lacked stability.

How did the Constituent Assembly reform French administration?

- France was divided into 83 departments for elections and local government.
- These were divided into districts (547), cantons (4872) and communes (44,000) that would be run by elected councils.
- More power was given to local areas as a safeguard against a royal recovery of power.

How did the Constituent Assembly reform the right to vote?

- The right to vote was given to 'active citizens' - all men over 25 who paid a certain level of tax. This totalled 4 million men.
- Those ineligible to vote were labelled 'passive citizens'. They were still citizens with rights, and not subjects who merely owed loyalty to a king. (about 3 million people)

How did the Constituent Assembly reform French taxation?

- Under the new system, everyone was liable to pay tax.
- All were liable to pay the land tax and the tax on commercial profits.
- Just 'active citizens' paid a tax on moveable goods, such as grain.

How did the Constituent Assembly reform French governmental finances?

- To finance government, assignats (a form of paper money) were introduced, backed by the sale of Church lands.
- This land sale provided income, created people with a vested interest in supporting the Revolution and left the clergy dependent on the State for their salaries, and thus more likely to be supporters of the new regime.

How did the Constituent Assembly reform the judiciary?

- All previous courts were replaced by a uniform system.
- There was a Justice of the Peace in each canton.
- Trial was by jury.
- Torture and mutilation were abolished.
- Justice was free and equal for all.

How did the Constituent Assembly end the privileges of the Ancien Regime?

- In June 1790, the nobility was abolished.
- In September 1790, the parlements were abolished.
- The privileges of trade guilds, town corporations and the special pays d'election were also abolished.

How did the Constituent Assembly reform the customs system?

All internal customs barriers were abolished.

What did the Loi Allarde (April 1791) do?

The guilds that regulated craft industries were abolished.

What did the Loi le Chapelier (June 1791) do?

It banned trade unions and made strikes illegal.

What did the Constituent Assembly do about the problem of the poor?

- They saw relief for the poor as the duty of the state.
- They examined the extent of the problem (almost 2 million people begging) but lacked the finance to do anything.

When was the Civil Constitution of the Clergy passed?

12th July 1790

What did the Civil Constitution of the Clergy decree?

- This saw the Constituent Assembly take control of the Church from the monarch.
- Bishops' dioceses were reorganised to coincide with the new 83 departments.
- All other clerical posts, apart from parish priests, were removed.
- Appointment to any clerical post was by election.
- All Church property became the property of the State.
- Abuses such as pluralism were abolished.
- The clergy were to be paid by the State instead of collecting the tithe.
- Monastic orders that provided neither education nor charitable work were suppressed.
- Protestants were given full civil rights.

How did the clergy react to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy?

- Many opposed the constitution.
- Their call for a Church synod was denied, so they waited for the judgement of the Pope.
- Many were unhappy that Catholicism was not made the official religion of France.
- However, they did accept the constitution.

When was the Clerical Oath introduced?

27th November 1790

What was the Clerical Oath?

The deputies made it a requirement for all clergy to take an oath to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.

What was the response to the Clerical Oath?

- The Pope came out against the reforms.
- Over 50% of the clergy refused to take the oath, refusing to accept their role as servants of the State. They were called 'refractory clergy' and were removed from their posts.
- For devout Catholics like Louis, there was a clash between their religion and the Revolution. As a result, a significant number of people now opposed the Revolution.

When was France's first written constitution put into place?

September 1791

How was the role of the monarch to change, according to the 1791 constitution?

- There was to be a constitutional monarchy with power shared.
- The King would choose the cabinet and ministers.
- He had the right to veto any measure for 5 years.
- The King's title was to be 'King of the French' instead of 'King of France'.
- The King was given an annual grant of 25 million livres for his expenses.
- He was forbidden to levy forces against the Constitution or to leave the country.
- He had to take an oath to the Constitution or be seen to have abdicated.

What was to be the legislature according to the 1791 constitution? How would it be elected?

- The single, elected Legislative Assembly would have rights to propose and pass laws; to raise taxes; to determine the size and composition of armed forces.
- It was to organise national festivals to celebrate the new State.
- The Assembly would be chosen by active citizens - men over 25 who paid taxes equivalent to 3 days' wages.
- Every 2 years, the active citizens would meet in local assemblies to select electors. The electors would have higher property qualifications. The total electorate would be 4 million and exclude passive citizens.
- The electors would choose 745 representatives to the Legislative Assembly.
- No existing member of the National Constituent Assembly could be a member of the new Legislative Assembly.
- No ministers, officials or judges could be a representative in the new Assembly.

What was affirmed in the preamble to the Constitution?

- There were no hereditary titles.
- There were no tax privileges.
- Citizens had natural rights which the new government must respect, including equal rights to hold office, freedom of movement, assembly, speech and writing.
- There were statements of intention for a new system of poor relief, public education and a new code of law.

Which key ideas were reflected in France's first constitution?

- separation of powers
- natural rights
- the sovereignty of the nation rather than a divinely appointed monarchy

How successful were the changes brought about by the 1791 Constitution?

- The reforms seemed successful in terms of the previous demands for change:
- They were in keeping with many of the demands of the cahiers and of the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
- There was an end of taxation privileges, and many of the former beneficiaries of taxation privilege supported these reforms as being in the interest of the nation.
- The complex local administrations were replaced by a modern and uniform system of local government.
- Justice was to be administered equally, as feudal courts were ended and the self-appointed aristocratic parlements were abolished. The legal reforms begun by Brienne were carried on and torture was abolished.
- Progressive measures to free economic activity, thus promoting prosperity, that Turgot began, were continued. Restrictions on making goods were ended and employers were protected by a law against workers combining (i.e. in trade unions) to secure higher wages.
- The ending of noble status and feudal rights met a lot of peasant grievances and opened the way for access to posts in the armed forces and in the administration to men of talent.
- Flow of ideas and free political discussion made possible by end of censorship. The persecution by both Church and State of those with different opinions was ended.
- The written and unshakeable form of the Constitution, guaranteeing the rights of the people and restricting the power of the monarch, was seen as a major step in modernising France and guaranteeing the welfare of its citizens.
- 4 million active citizens was remarkably progressive for its time - e.g. Britain had far fewer voters.
- Changes to the Church provided the possibility of better pastoral care and gave religious toleration. It was considered to be purer without its property and rich higher clergy.

How were the changes brought about the 1791 Constitution limited?

- The restriction on political activity - voting and being made deputies - to 'active citizens' based on wealth, meant that poorer people were reduced to the status of 'passive citizens', reintroducing class distinction. It was hoped that the poorer people of Paris would accept this role, but it became increasingly clear that the spread of political awareness and ongoing resentment about economic hardship would not make this likely.
- Women were excluded from the new Constitution, and, despite the promised liberty, slavery in French colonies was not ended.
- Little was done to relieve poverty. Despite the promise in the preamble to the Constitution, 2 million people were still begging to survive.
- The freedom from guild restriction was to help the independent craftsmen, not the very poor. The middle-class deputies also banned trade unions and strikes.
- For many Catholics, the Church reforms were worrying and many supported priests who did not take the Oath to the Constitution, dividing France.
- The changes also set up a rural-urban divide. In many rural areas, it seemed that a metropolitan elite from Paris was pushing through change. The peasantry was barely represented in the Constituent Assembly and many areas were suspicious of the new local government arrangements, and particularly concerned about changes to the Church (especially if the local priests were refractory).
- The reforms went faster and further than the King and many nobles wanted. This led to an outflow of some of the nobility and their supporters - emigres - to other countries.
- The promises in the Constitution of new systems of poor relief and education would be costly and difficult to put into practice.
- The royal veto opened up the possibilities of clashes with the King.
- The freer flow of ideas gave rise to more radical political no

What was arguably the greatest weakness of the Constitution of 1791?

The lack of continuity. The decision to exclude the members of the Constituent Assembly from the new Legislative Assembly was to weaken the new Constitutional Monarchy.

How did the growth of political discussion and clubs contribute to the fall of the Constitutional Monarchy?

- Increasing numbers of people met together to discuss politics in a series of political clubs.
- Some were radical, e.g. the Cordeliers and the Jacobins, and were eager for more change.
- However, some were moderate, like the Feuillants.
- Though there were no political parties in the modern sense, the clubs gathered those with similar views to discuss ideas and possible policies. They became very influential.
- The more radical clubs aimed to involve the people to promote political change.

What was the Cordeliers Club?

- Founded in April 1790 as The Society of the Friends of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, by middle class radicals from the notoriously radical district of the Cordeliers.
- Its low entry fees attracted working-class members.
- Its leading members, Danton and Desmoulins, stirred up agitation in the Champs de Mars demonstration and also in the insurrection of 10th August.
- it believed that the reforms of the Constituent Assembly fell short of the principles in the Declaration of the Rights of Man

What was the Jacobin Club?

- Originated in a meeting of Breton deputies in June 1798, which then became the Society of the Friends of the Constitution in October 1789.
- A debating and discussion club that met in the old convent of St Jacques in Paris.
- Its middle-class membership split in July 1791, with more moderate constitutional monarchists leaving to form the Feuillants.
- The Jacobins became more radical, first dominated by Brissot and the Girondins, and then more extreme radicals led by Robespierre.
- Sister clubs were established across the provinces.
- The Club became a major political centre, 1793-4, but was shut down after Robespierre's fall in July 1794.

What was the Feuillant Club?

- After their split from the Jacobins in July 1791, these more conservative politicians formed the Friends of the Constitution and met in a disused religious house of the old Feuillant order.
- Their leaders, Antoine Barnave, Alexandre de Lameth and Adrien Duport, gained the King's confidence and they supported a ministry from 1791-2 until being ousted by the Girondins over the issue of war.
- They were arrested in August 1792 and Barnave was guillotined in November 1793.

How was the whole concept of monarchy forced to change?

- The whole idea of a divine monarchy had been undermined by the theories of natural rights and popular sovereignty.
- If monarchy was to survive then it would have to be in a new context.
- The British monarchs had adapted to accepting a constitutional monarchy where power was shared with elected ministers. George III became one of the most popular British kings since Tudor times.
- Other monarchs of Europe had adapted to change and saw themselves as serving their people rather than being God-like figures.

When was the flight to Varennes?

20th June 1791

What made Louis change from accepting the Revolution and the new constitutional monarchy?

- The Civil Constitution of the Clergy troubled him because of his strong religious beliefs and the links between the Church and the Crown, which were broken by the new controls over the Church by the Assembly and the confiscation of Church lands. All of this was condemned by the Pope. Louis came to see the priests who had sworn the Oath to the Constitution as despicable. By 1791 it was obvious that he was avoiding Mass celebrated by such clergy.
- His position as a prisoner in Paris - this made his negotiating position weak and the loss of freedom concerned him. When the royal family tried to leave Paris in April, to spend Easter at Saint Cloud, crowds blocked them in. The National Guard ignored orders to clear their way. Louis saw that he was essentially a prisoner, making it difficult to see that he would be in a position to maintain his rights in any future formal constitution.

What did Louis plan to do, concerning his flight from Paris?

- Louis decided to escape Paris with his family.
- In June, the royal family made plans to join loyal troops under the command of the royalist commander de Bouille.
- From the fortress of Montmedy in eastern France, Louis planned to negotiate with the Assembly, free from the restraints of Paris and its mobs.

Describe the flight to Varennes.

- On 20th June 1791, the royal family left Paris in disguise and travelled east.
- The escape was too slow and escorting loyal troops were not able to rendezvous with the royal party.
- The Parisian crowds watched in silence. Louis had left behind a proclamation denouncing the Revolution.

What was the impact of the flight to Varennes?

- The King's actions showed that Louis hadn't understood how popular the changes since 1789 were.
- The news of the escape provoked a wave of unrest in the countryside, described as a 'mini Great Fear'.
- Constitutional monarchy was in doubt as many lost trust in Louis' willingness to cooperate.
- 6,000 noble army officers left the country to join the emigre nobles in Germany, who were massing forces to rescue the King.
- Foreign powers were now concerned for the King's safety.
- Republicanism started to grow. The more radical political groups called for an end to the monarchy.
- However, in the short term, the threat of deposition and civil war led the King to accept the Constitution, which included a provision that if the King left the country, he would be seen to have abdicated.
- The Assembly accepted the lie that Louis had been abducted by royalists, and thus the flight was not his fault.
- However, the vital element of trust between the Crown and the people was destroyed.

When was the Champ de Mars demonstration?

17th July 1791

What was the Champ de Mars demonstration?

- The Cordeliers organised a mass protest against the monarchy in response to the King's flight to Varennes and the obvious cover-up organised by moderate Assembly leaders to try to maintain unity.
- The flight had led to a renewal of unrest which had familiar causes - fear of force being used against the people, economic problems and the influence of journals and pamphlets.
- The demonstration was a signing ceremony for a republican petition on the Champs de Mars.
- Roughly 50,000 people attended.

How did the Champs de Mars demonstration become a massacre?

- The National Guard, under Lafayette, were called out to maintain order and fired on the crowd.
- Up to 50 people were killed, and the rest dispersed.

What was the result of the Champs de Mars demonstration?

Its leaders, Brissot and Danton, fled, and the Cordeliers Club was shut down.

What did the Champs de Mars demonstration show?

- Provided the authorities were firm and they had the support of enough armed force, popular action could be controlled.
- However, it also demonstrated that revolutionary leaders could organise popular action on a large scale.

How important was the nature of the Legislative Assembly in contributing to the failure of the Constitutional Monarchy?

- The inexperience and poor quality of the Legislative Assembly body has been seen as an indication that the Constitutional Monarchy had little chance of success.
- A major problem was that as no former member of the National Constituent Assembly could be elected, the new deputies lacked experience.

When did the Legislative Assembly meet for the first time?

1st October 1791

Describe the deputies of the Legislative Assembly.

- There were 745 deputies.
- They were well off (as expected from an election system that favoured the wealthy) - mostly from the bourgeoise.
- Few were nobles - most had emigrated or retired to their country estates.
- A few deputies were clergy.
- Many distrusted the King after Varennes.
- The Queen described them as 'scoundrels, madmen and fools', but most were eminent and well-educated men.

How important was economic unrest in contributing to the failure of the Constitutional Monarchy?

- There were problems arising from yet another bad harvest in the autumn of 1791.
- There were disturbances in northern France and food riots in Paris in January and February 1792.
- West Indies trade and supplies of sugar had been hit by a slave revolt in St Dominique.
- There was unemployment resulting from the flight of so many nobles, which hit the luxury trades in Paris.
- The new paper money was not widely accepted, and once again, the government faced financial problems.
- As in 1789, popular unrest was allied to political unrest. The Paris crowds - now known as the sans-culottes - were restless.

What was arguably the key element in the failure of the Constitutional Monarchy?

the war against Prussia and Austria

When did Austria and Prussia issue the Pillnitz Declaration?

August 1791

What was the Pillnitz

Austria and Prussia threatened combined military intervention in French affairs in support of the King, (but did nothing).

Who were the Girondins and how did they become involved in French politics?

- One of the leading supports of the war with Prussia and Austria was a journalist called Jacques-Pierre Brissot. He had a following which included the husband and wife political team, the Rolands, and a group of deputies from the south-west, the Gironde region.
- There was no formal organisation, but the supporters of war and of Brissot came to be known as the Brissotins or Girondins.
- They argued that a war would end the threat from the emigres and deter foreign invasion. France would be protected by a ring of territory from the Austrian Netherlands to the Rhineland area. The war would unite the nation behind the Revolution and force the King to be a Revolutionary leader.

Who was Brissot?

- Journalist and intellectual who studied Enlightenment writers and supported the abolition of slavery.
- Set up a newspaper in 1789 which attracted radical support.
- Leading influence in the Girondin group in the Legislative Assembly and heavily responsible for the war policy in 1792.
- His supporters were ministers but were overthrown in the coup of June 1792.
- Gained Robespierre as a political enemy and was guillotined in June 1793.

Who were the Rolands?

- Jean Marie Roland was a manufacturer and factory inspector. He and his wife (Marie-Jeanne) became interested in politics in Lyon and moved to Paris in 1791.
- Mme Roland hosted an important political salon, where leading politicians, including Robespierre, discussed reform and radical ideas.
- Roland became Minister of the Interior when the Girondins were the most powerful group.
- He was dismissed for opposing the royal veto on anti-emigre and became a popular figure.
- He was reinstated in August 1792.
- However, as the feud with the Jacobins grew, he resigned (Jan 1793). He fled Paris, but Mme Roland stayed and was executed. Roland killed himself.

Describe the events leading up to the declaration of war.

- The threat (Pillnitz) and the presence of emigre troops under the Comte d'Artois (Louis' brother) on France's north-eastern frontier, made the revolutionaries even more suspicious of the monarchy. They feared counter-revolution and invasion.
- By February 1792, there was wide-spread talk of war.
- The Girondins argued in support of the war.
- The more moderate political leaders like Barnave could not face this development and left politics.
- The King supported the war. He dismissed his initial ministers - the more moderate Feuillants - and replaced them with Girondin, pro-war ministers in March 1792. He hoped for a win-win situation: a victory would make him appear strong and patriotic; a failure would lead to the invasion of France and the restoration of the power of the Crown.

Who was Barnave?

- A lawyer from Dauphine
- Elected to the Estates General and supported the reforms of 1789-90.
- Influential in the Jacobin Club
- Believed in the Constitutional Monarchy and, together with his allies Duport and Lameth, broke with the more radical elements in the Jacobins in 1791 to form the Feuillants.
- He opposed war in 1792 and was driven from the Assembly by radical criticism.
- Executed in November 1793 during the Terror, based on his correspondence with the royal family.

When was war declared against Austria?

20th April 1792

When was war declared against Prussia?

June 1792

Describe the major events of the Revolutionary War, 1792-5

- French invasions of the Austrian Netherlands fail.
- July - Brunswick Manifesto - Prussia's commander threatens French civilians in Paris if the royal family is harmed.
- Prussian forces invade eastern France and take Verdun.
- September - first major French victory at Valmy.
- 1793 - Spain, Portugal, Britain and the Dutch Republic join the war against France. French failures in Belgium. British land at Toulon, where they are driven off by Napoleon.
- 1794 - the French are victorious at Fleurus. France occupies Belgium, the Rhineland and part of Holland.
- 1795 - the Dutch Republic is occupied by the French.

How successful was the Revolutionary War at the start for the French?

- The war began badly.
- Almost half the officers of the French army had become emigres and its soldiers were demoralised.
- They were soon retreating, with their generals urging peace talks. This lead to mistrust of the King and calls for more revolutionary measures to defeat the enemy.
- The French army suffered from a lack of experienced officers and also from undisciplined and inexperienced troops. General Dillon was murdered by his own men soon after the fighting started.

How did Louis and Marie Antoinette begin to obstruct the work of the French government and the war effort?

- The Queen was passing military secrets to the Austrians.
- The King wavered. He would not support the Assembly's security measures. Two laws were passed which he vetoed. One made not swearing the clerical oath a crime (conspiracy against the state); the other demanded the confiscation of property of any emigres, including Louis' brothers, who refused to return to France.
- Louis also dismissed leading Girondins from his government. He appeared to be obstructing the work of the Legislative Assembly. This increased his popularity.
- When he vetoed a proposal to call provincial troops in to defend the capital, this proved too much.

What was the situation like with popular unrest by the summer of 1792?

- Common causes of popular unrest were once again present. Threats and rumours were much more real.
- The early defeats of the French forces in the war and the threat of the Brunswick Manifesto caused acute anxiety.
- The war had led to higher prices.
- The King appeared to be siding with the enemy.
- The authorities appeared weak.
- By 1792, there had developed a distinct mindset among the people of the Paris faubourgs - that of the sans-culottes'. These were the people who worked in the varied trades of the poorer areas of Paris. They were politically radical and detested 'aristocrats' (nobles, wealthy merchants, bankers, trading clerks, lawyers, property owners).
- By 1792, the sans-culottes wanted prices to be fixed on essential foods and goods. They wanted equality and greater democracy.

What happened on the 20th June 1792?

- The King's dismissal of his Girondin ministers on 13th June led to massive demonstrations stirred up by the Girondins.
- Thousands of sans-culottes occupied the Tuileries, and forced Louis to wear a red cap of liberty. They carried placards with the slogan 'Tremble tyrants. Here are the sans-culottes.'
- The end of the monarchy was in sight.

What happened in July 1792?

- Following the decree of a state of emergency, provincial National Guards (federes) began to arrive in Paris, joining increased calls for the end of the monarchy.
- The Brunswick Manifesto (Prussia threatens reprisals if royal family is harmed, identifying Louis with the enemy) led to a dramatic increase in calls for a republic.
- A more experienced Assembly might have taken action to calm Paris and defend the Constitution, but it was undermined by radicals in the capital, who had formed a special revolutionary organisation. The Paris Commune was taken over by radicals led by Danton, who formed a new revolutionary commune. They were supported by the provincial troops who had come to Paris in July.

When was the storming of the Tuileries?

10th August 1792

What was the storming of the Tuileries?

- The Tuileries Palace was attacked by the Parisian mob/sans-culottes and its defenders, the Swiss Guards, killed in a horrifying massacre.
- These crowds had a sense of purpose and collective identity that was much greater than it had been in the more spontaneous events of 1789. They were supported by radical leaders among the Jacobins and Cordeliers and prominent politicians in the Paris Commune.
- The surge of unrest was planned by a special Insurrectionary Commune (the Paris Commune radicalised by radical elements led by Danton), intent on bringing down the monarchy.
- Popular action was backed by the armed force of the provincial militias who had come to Paris. This force was impossible to resist - the Assembly was virtually dismissed by the sans-culottes' leader, Huguenin.
- The royal family took refuge with the Legislative Assembly.
- The deputies were then forced to hand over Louis, who was imprisoned and the monarchy was suspended.
- They had to agree to a new election, by universal male suffrage, of a National Convention that was to draw up a new, more democratic, constitution.

What was the importance of popular action in this period?

- Arguably, it was direct popular action, supported by radical leadership and showing a new coordination, which brought down the monarchy.
- However, direct popular action was not unusual at the time - many states faced popular disturbances, including Ancien Regime France. With so many people living on the margin of existence and with relatively limited police forces, it was a fact of life.
- What made it so important 1789-92 was the failure of resolute state resistance. When firm action was taken, the mobs could be controlled. However, fear that the armed forces would not be loyal and fear of prolonged civil war meant that, at key times, authority gave way.
- By 1792, radical political leaders who aimed at greater change were able to organise and coordinate the activities of a much more politicised Paris population. This was possible due to the poor political decisions taken by those in authority in starting a war for which France was poorly prepared.

Evidence that the chances of the Constitutional Monarchy working were slim.

- The lack of political experience of the King and political leaders
- Louis could not accept his loss of power and the extent of change since 1789, and was not helped by an embittered Marie Antoinette.
- The Assembly could not forget the attempted flight to Varennes.
- The existence of a royal veto made government difficult. The issue of the non-juror priests and the King's reluctance to confiscate emigre property could not be resolved easily.
- Whoever ruled France faced the problems of economic distress in late 1791 and ongoing financial problems.
- There was pressure from both the conservative right and the radical left: the emigres and the foreign powers were a possible threat to end the Revolution; the radical clubs, supported by the Paris sans-culottes, were a threat to make it more radical.

Evidence that the Constitutional Monarchy could have been successful.

- There was a great deal of rejoicing at the new constitution.
- The King had sworn to accept it.
- The Assembly did have many able men of good will. There were moderate ministers.
- Britain had made a constitutional monarchy that worked and under which the country had prospered.
- There had been many who had gained from the changes of 1789-91. If only there could have been a period of peace, the chances of a successful new state were not remote.

How did the war end any hopes of constitutional progress?

- The decision to go to war involved all of France's problems.
- The radical groups mostly supported it.
- The decision of the King to go to war revealed his poor judgement and lack of willingness to be a constitutional monarch, even preferring the hazards of war.
- The war was a response to external threats that would have to be met sooner or later.
- The decision showed the weakness and inexperience of the new Legislative Assembly and a desire to escape problems at home by unifying the nation behind foreign war.
- Given that both King and Assembly could not understand the dangers of taking a divided country with weakened armed forces into a major war, term-78it is difficult to see that there was really enough political wisdom and moderation in the France of 1791 to make the constitutional monarchy likely to succeed.

Who governed France in the aftermath of the storming of the Tuileries?

Power was shared between the deputies of the Legislative Assembly, the Revolutionary Commune who controlled Paris and a new body created by them both, the Provisional Executive Council.

How did the Legislative Assembly try to retain its hold on power?

- It appointed a more radical government.
- It abolished feudal payments.
- It claimed credit for ending the monarchy.
- However, there was still popular pressure for change.

What happened before the elections for the Convention?

The electorate was widened to include all those in employment, and rose to 5 million. Domestic servants, women and those living on charity were still excluded.

When were the elections for the Convention?

The primary assemblies chose electors on 25th August 1792 and the main elections were held in early September.

What was the role of the Convention?

- It was responsible for both government and law making.
- Its main purpose was giving the country and new republican constitution.

What was the composition of the Convention?

- The radical deputies - the Jacobins, the Cordeliers and those representing the Commune of Paris and the radical provincial volunteers (federes) sat high up on the left and were called the Montagnards.
- The moderate deputies sat in the centre and were called 'the Plain'.
- The Girondins sat on the right-hand side of the raised seating.
- Initially, this was not an extreme assembly, though there were no royalists.
- Jacobins won only a quarter of the seats.
- Many of the previous deputies were re-elected.
- Half of the Convention were lawyers.
- The leading group was the less radical Girondins - their previous position as the radicals of the Legislative Assembly had changed, and they were the more conservative revolutionary party in the Convention.

When was the monarchy abolished?

21st September 1792

How was the war going in August/September 1792?

- The Revolutionary War continued to go badly.
- General Lafayette, after trying to march his army on Paris to end the Revolution, defected to the Austrians.
- It seemed that the Prussians would capture Paris within weeks.

What were the origins of the September Massacres?

- In response to the growing threat of a Prussian invasion, the Commune ordered the arrest of hundreds of suspected counter-revolutionaries.
- Rumours spread that they planned to escape from prison, massacre the people and surrender Paris to the advancing Prussians.
- Marat and other Jacobin extremists called for the prisoners to be killed.

Who was Marat?

- A scientist and doctor
- He set up a popular radical newspaper called 'L'Ami du Peuple' in September 1789, advocating for democracy and republicanism.
- Forced into hiding for his extreme views in 1790, he emerged in the heated atmosphere of 1792 as a political force and was a member of the Convention.
- A radical Jacobin, he was hated by the Girondins, who put him on trial, but he took a leading part in their downfall.
- He was murdered in his bath in July 1793.

What were the September massacres?

- When news of the fall of the fortress of Verdun reached Paris on 2nd September, the prisons were broken into.
- Over 1,300 prisoners were murdered over 4 days, suspected of being counter-revolutionaries.
- More than 1000 people were killed.
- Some of the prisoners were noblemen and clergy; many were common criminals with no political agenda.

How did the revolutionaries change the French calendar? What was its significance?

- To reflect France's fresh start as a Republic, the Convention declared it Year One, rather than AD1792.
- The old months were renamed, in a new Revolutionary Calendar adopted on 24th October 1793 but backdated to 22nd September 1792. Thus Year One started on 1 Vendemiaire (22 September 1792).
- This showed a desire to radically break with the past, which was part of a revolutionary mindset that encompassed ruthless violence to create a new order.

What was the conflict over Louis' fate after the abolition of the monarchy?

- The Girondins and Montagnards fought over what to do with the King after the end of the monarchy.
- The radicals urged for him to be put on trial, and the more moderates dared not refuse.

When was the King put on trial for treason by the Convention and found guilty?

January 1793

By how much was the vote for the death penalty won, during the King's trial?

387 to 344

When was the King executed?

21st January 1793

What did Louis' execution pave the way for?

- The continuation of war - the European states were shocked by the execution of a king.
- Civil war in France
- The extension of political violence

Where were the major counter-revolutionary risings in France in 1793?

in the south and the Vendee

What were the main reasons for the rising in the Vendee?

The Vendee was a largely rural region in the west of France, alienated by taxation and conscription and resentful of the religious changes since the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and the execution of the King.

Describe the rising in the Vendee.

- The rising began in March 1793.
- A trader, Jacques Cathelineau, led attacks on constitutional priests and revolutionary officials in March 1793 and unrest spread.
- A Catholic and Royal army of 80,000 took key points in the Vendee and marched on the major city of Nantes and into Normandy.
- Initially successful, they began to fail from June 1793 and then faced a furious Republican response from 'indernal columns' of experienced troops under General Turreau, who carried out brutal destruction of whole areas.
- The war lasted until 1796 and over 200,000 may have been killed.

How did the National Convention respond to the threats of civil war in the south and the Vendee?

- They set up a political court in March 1793, which became the Revolutionary Tribunal in October.
- They set up the Committee of Public Safety (CPS) on 6th April 1793 and the Committee of General Security (CGS).

What was the Committee of Public Safety?

- 12-man committee created to coordinate the war effort.
- A war cabinet initially dominated by Danton.
- However, it came to be led by more extreme revolutionaries: Robespierre, Couthon and St Just.

What measures did the CPS pass?

- 23rd August 1793 - levee en masse (conscription) passed by Carnot, responsible for war strategy and personnel
- The CPS dispatched special representatives on mission to the armies to improve morale and supervise the generals.

In 1793-4, how many generals were guillotined or shot? How many were dismissed on suspicion of treachery or defeatism?

84 generals were guillotined or shot, and another 352 were dismissed

What was the role of the CGS (also 12 deputies)?

Their function was to oversee state security, including to police and prosecute foreign agents and counterfeiters of assignats.

As the threat of invasion and defeat grew...

the Convention and its Committees resorted to increased terror.

Who became the best-known member of the CPS in July 1793, due to his popularity with the Paris sections and in the Commune, his dominance of the Jacobin Club and ability to sway the Convention?

Robespierre

Who was Robespierre? What was his character like?

- He was born in Arras, the son of lawyer. He trained in law in Paris and specialised in defending poorer people.
- His studies had brought him into contact with key Enlightenment ideas, such as those of Rousseau, and an admiration for the republican ideals of the Ancient World.
- He was elected to be a provincial deputy in the Estates General in 1789.
- He developed radical ideals and was a member of the Jacobin Club.
- He was an ardent believer in the Revolution and the end of the monarchy.
- He held office briefly 1792-3 before moving into radical opposition.
- His simple, austere way of life as an unmarried lodger who did not seek personal wealth or reward was admired.
- A ruthlessness led him to abandon his previous beliefs opposing the death penalty and to accept violence as necessary for the Revolution.