Chapter 4 - The Self and Social Identity

What is a social phenomenon regarding identity and how we perceive the world over time?

As humans, we are in a constant process of both identifying ourselves and being identified by others. The reason for this is that there are countless characteristics being integrated into our personalities through our new experiences.

Hence, shaping how we view ourselves and the world around us.

Explain personal–social identity continuum.

This concept refers to a range of traits you possess that emphasise how you see yourself as an individual and within a group.

When your new experiences start to integrate into your identity, what is that called?

Those new traits fall along your personal-social identity continuum.

Can each of your different traits be more emphasised in different contexts?

Yes.

For example, someone’s identity of being a mother might be emphasised during parent teacher conferences. Or perhaps being a Canadian citizen may be more emphasised in your identity when you are at an airport etc…

Define master statuses.

Fundamental traits that shape almost every aspect of our lives and take precedence over other characteristics.

(ie. sex, ethnicity).

If someone doesn’t view typical master statuses to be a large part of their identity, how can that affect how other’s perceive them?

Even if a master status, like ethnicity, is not a large part of what you consider to be your identity, they are still central to how others categorise you. Which ultimately affects your life.

Define auxiliary traits.

Characteristics presumed to be matched with certain master statuses.

(ie. mother = master status, auxiliary trait = nurturing, patient)

If someone’s perception of you matches your own view of yourself, can there still be differences in how you both see yourself?

Yes.

Even if the way that others identify you corresponds to the way you identify yourself, there can still be divergent views about the auxiliary traits.

Explain the subjective nature of the self.

Sociologists often refer to the ‘self’ as something separate from others. The term ‘self-concept’ is often used to describe a culmination of different traits, feelings and experiences that shape a person into who they are.

However, how we perceive these different traits is highly subjective.

It is only through our interactions with others and our internalisation of cultural standards (or a generalised other) that we come to develop the meanings, shared understandings, and bases of comparison that ultimately create our subjective selves.

Therefore, one could argue that socialisation is key to our understanding of the ‘self’ as those social interactions are what help us learn about ourselves and the various roles within society and their relation to one another.

All this is to say, our interactions with people deeply shape how we see ourselves and the world.

Define the self-concept.

An individuals sense of who they are based on perceived similarities to and differences from others.

Define sociolisation.

A lifelong process where people learn about themselves and their various roles within society in relation to one another.

Define social identies.

How we perceive ourselves based on the social groups we are in.

Define personal identities.

The portions of our identity that we consider to be unique from others.

What are the major categories for what influences the self?

1. Biological determinism

2. Behaviourism

3. Bio-Ecological Theory of Human Development

4. Socialisation and Genetic Influences

Define biological determinism.

The belief that human behaviour is controlled by genetics.

Explain the bases of biological determinism and why people thought it shaped the self.

Within biological determinism is a sub-discipline called “sociobiology.”

Sociobiology is an evolutionary perspective that focuses on how groups of people exhibit certain behaviours and adapt to certain social environments due to pre-existing genetic constraints.

For example, aggression would be considered a response that has evolved due to the need to physically fight for scarce resources back then.

What is an example of genetics playing a role in how individuals behave?

Aggression.

• Genetic biomarkers have been identified for aggressive behaviours in children

• High levels of Monoamine Oxidase A (MAO-A) and agressive behaviour

• Elevated hormones has also been linked to aggressive crime tendencies

Define behaviourism.

A concept proposed by John. B Watson that rejects the idea of free-will and emphasises that, except for some reflexes and emotions, all behaviour could be attributed to learning.

Watson is famous for the declaration:

“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.”

Other than John B. Watson, who else was a behaviourism enthusiast?

B.F Skinner.

Skinner also felt that learning was important in shaping our behaviours. He specifically felt that positive responses to certain actions would increase the likelihood of those actions in the future.

In contrast, he felt that negative responses to certain behaviours would result in a decreased likelihood of those actions being carried out in the future.

How did Albert Bandura feel about social learning? How did it oppose Skinner’s perspective?

Bandura did a lot of research on aggression and felt that a lot of learning took place in the absence of immediate or obvious consequences. This is because he felt that people would observe others and then imitate those actions.

Currently, how do most researchers think people learn?

Today, most researchers take all sorts of different factors into account because they now realise the complex interplay between every factor when it comes to shaping how people learn.

Moreover, a lot of research on Epigenetics, originally coined by Waddington, refers to the study of different environmental factors that bring about changes in our gene expression.

Explain the Bio-Ecological Theory of Human Development.

This concept stresses the importance of human agency and that human development is an ongoing, evolving and reciprocal process between individuals and their external structural environments.