Key Concepts in Attribution and Social Psychology

Attribution

The process of explaining the causes of behavior, either one's own or others'.

Dispositional Attribution

Attributing behavior to an individual's internal characteristics, such as personality or abilities.

Situational Attribution

Attributing behavior to external factors, such as the environment or circumstances.

Optimistic Explanatory Style

A tendency to attribute negative events to external, unstable, and specific factors, leading to a positive outlook.

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

A tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global factors, often leading to depression or anxiety.

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute one's own actions to external factors while attributing others' actions to internal traits.

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

The tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors to maintain self-esteem.

External Locus of Control

Belief that life events are controlled by outside forces, such as luck or fate.

Internal Locus of Control

Belief that one's own actions and decisions determine outcomes in life.

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon in which repeated exposure to a stimulus increases liking for it.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A belief or expectation that influences behavior in a way that causes the belief to come true.

Social Comparison

Evaluating oneself in relation to others.

Upward and Downward Social Comparison

Upward: Comparing oneself to someone perceived as superior, which can be motivating or discouraging. Downward: Comparing oneself to someone perceived as worse off, which can boost self-esteem.

Relative Deprivation

Feeling disadvantaged when comparing oneself to others who seem better off.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people.

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward an individual based on their group membership.

Discrimination

Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members.

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious beliefs that influence behavior and perceptions.

Just-World Phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve, leading to victim-blaming.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

The tendency to view members of an out-group as more similar than they really are.

In-Group Bias

Favoring members of one's own group over others.

Ethnocentrism

Viewing one's own culture as superior and judging other cultures based on it.

Belief Perseverance

Holding on to beliefs even when presented with contradictory evidence.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that confirms existing beliefs.

Cognitive Dissonance

Psychological discomfort resulting from inconsistencies between attitudes and behaviors.

Social Norms

Unwritten rules about how people should behave in society.

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to be accepted or liked by a group.

Informational Social Influence

Conforming because one believes others have accurate knowledge.

Persuasion

The process of changing attitudes through communication.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Theory explaining how attitudes are changed through either deep (central) or superficial (peripheral) processing.

Central Route of Persuasion

Using logic and facts to persuade, effective for motivated audiences.

Peripheral Route of Persuasion

Using superficial cues, such as attractiveness or celebrity endorsements, to persuade.

Halo Effect

The tendency to assume someone's positive traits extend to other areas.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Getting someone to agree to a small request before making a larger request.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Starting with a large request that is refused, followed by a smaller request that seems more reasonable.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to align with a group standard.

Obedience

Following orders from an authority figure.

Individualism

A cultural focus on personal achievement and independence.

Collectivism

A cultural focus on group harmony and interdependence.

Multiculturalism

Recognizing and valuing diverse cultural perspectives.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group discussions to strengthen the group's prevailing opinion.

Groupthink

When a group prioritizes harmony over critical decision-making.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Reduced personal responsibility when others are present.

Social Loafing

Exerting less effort in a group task than when working alone.

Deindividuation

Losing self-awareness in group situations, leading to impulsive behavior.

Social Facilitation

Performing better on simple tasks in the presence of others.

False Consensus Effect

Overestimating how much others share one's beliefs.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation between groups.

Social Trap

Situations where individual interests lead to negative group outcomes.

Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology

The study of workplace behavior and productivity.

Altruism

Helping others selflessly.

Prosocial Behavior

Positive social actions that benefit others.

Social Debt

The sense of obligation to return a favor.

Social Responsibility Norm

The expectation to help those who depend on us.

Social Reciprocity Norm

The expectation to return favors.

Bystander Effect

The tendency to be less likely to help when others are present.

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective of Personality

Theory that unconscious forces shape personality.

Preconscious & Unconscious Mind

Preconscious: Thoughts that can be accessed. Unconscious: Hidden desires and motives.

Id, Ego, Superego

Id: Instinctual desires. Ego: Balances desires with reality. Superego: Moral conscience.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety (e.g., denial, repression, projection).

Humanistic Perspective of Personality

Emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Accepting others without conditions.

Self-Actualizing Tendency

The drive to fulfill one's potential.

Social-Cognitive Theory of Personality

Personality is shaped by interactions between thoughts, behaviors, and environment.

Reciprocal Determinism

The interplay between behavior, environment, and personal factors.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one's ability to succeed.

Self-Esteem

One's sense of self-worth.

Self-Concept

An individual's perception of themselves.

Trait Theories of Personality

Describe personality as a collection of stable traits.

Big Five Theory (OCEAN)

Openness: Creativity, curiosity. Conscientiousness: Responsibility, discipline. Extraversion: Sociability, energy. Agreeableness: Compassion, cooperation. Neuroticism: Emotional stability.

Personality Inventories

Questionnaires that assess personality traits.

Factor Analysis

A statistical method for identifying personality traits.

Projective Tests

Tests using ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts.

Drive-Reduction Theory

A theory that motivation arises from the need to reduce internal states of tension caused by unmet biological needs (e.g., hunger, thirst).

Homeostasis

The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state (e.g., regulating temperature, blood sugar).

Arousal Theory (Optimal Arousal)

The idea that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal—too little leads to boredom, too much causes stress.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A principle stating that moderate arousal leads to optimal performance; too little or too much arousal can hinder performance. (Graph shows an inverted U-shaped curve.)

Self-Determination Theory

A theory that humans are motivated by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Intrinsic Motivation

Engaging in behavior for personal satisfaction or enjoyment rather than external rewards.

Extrinsic Motivation

Engaging in behavior due to external rewards or pressures (e.g., money, praise).

Incentive Theory

The idea that external stimuli 'pull' behavior by offering rewards.

Instincts

Innate, biologically programmed behaviors that occur in response to specific stimuli.

Lewin's Motivational Conflicts Theory

Theory describing three types of conflicts: Approach-Approach Conflict - Choosing between two desirable options; Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict - Choosing between two undesirable options; Approach-Avoidance Conflict - A single option has both positive and negative aspects.

Sensation Seeking

The need for varied, novel, and intense experiences, often linked to risk-taking behavior.

Eating Motivation

Psychological and biological factors influencing food intake.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates hunger by signaling the brain when the stomach is empty.

Leptin

A hormone that signals fullness and helps regulate energy balance.

Hypothalamus

A brain structure regulating hunger, thirst, and other homeostatic processes.

Pituitary Gland

The 'master gland' that regulates hormones, including those affecting hunger and stress.

External Factors Motivating Hunger

Environmental influences such as food availability, portion size, cultural norms, and social eating.

Internal/External Factors Affecting Emotion

Internal: Personal experiences, physiological states, thoughts; External: Cultural norms, situational factors, social interactions.

Physiological and Cognitive Experiences of Emotion

Physiological: Bodily responses (e.g., heart rate, sweating); Cognitive: Personal interpretation and labeling of emotions.

Cognitive Label

The process of identifying and interpreting an emotion based on context and bodily reactions.

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

The idea that facial expressions can influence emotions (e.g., smiling can make you feel happier).

Facial Expressions (Universally Common)

Basic emotions expressed across all cultures: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust.

Cognitive Appraisal

The interpretation of an event that determines the emotional response.

Broaden-and-Build Theory of Emotion

A theory stating that positive emotions expand awareness and encourage creativity and problem-solving.

Display Rules

Cultural norms governing when and how emotions should be expressed.

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Emotions result from physiological reactions. (e.g., 'I feel afraid because my heart is racing.')