psych 101 lecture notes ch.1-3

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)

Studied human reaction time and nerve impulse length.

Stimulus

Sensory input from the environment.

Reaction time

Time taken to respond to a specific stimulus. Neural transmission speed estimated at 27 m/s.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

Opened the first psychology laboratory.

Consciousness

Subjective experience of the world and mind.

Structuralism

Analysis of basic elements constituting the mind.

Introspection

Subjective observation of one's own experience.

William James

Pioneer of functionalism in psychology.

Functionalism

Focus on why functions exist and their adaptiveness.

Gestalt

Perception-based theory emphasizing holistic processing.

Behaviourism

Study of objectively observable behavior only.

John Watson

Prominent behaviorist advocating for observable behavior.

Little Albert

Study demonstrating classical conditioning in humans. stimulus response learning.

Pavlov

Classical conditioning of dogs

Classical conditioning

Learning through association of stimuli.

BF Skinner

Founded operant conditioning and reinforcement principles.

Reinforcement

Consequences that increase behavior likelihood.

Indigenous Psychology

Psychology's Euro-centric origins and Indigenous perspectives.

Two-eyed seeing

Integrating Indigenous and Western knowledge systems.

Cognitive Revolution

Shift towards understanding human cognition and technology.

Donald Broadbent

(1926-1993) Discovered limited capacity of attention.

George Miller

(1920-2012) Found consistency in memory capacity limits.

Herbert Simon

(1950s) Conceptualized the mind as a computer.

Cognitive Neuroscience

Study of brain mapping related to cognition.

Wilder Penfield (1891-1976)

cortical ablation (epilepsy)

electrical stimulation of the cortex

Theory

Explanation of natural phenomena generating testable predictions.

Hypothesis

Specific, falsifiable prediction derived from a theory.

Rule of Parsimony

Simplest theory explaining evidence is preferred.

Operationalize the Hypothesis

Define and measure interests in objective terms.

Good Measurement

Includes power, reliability, and validity.

Power

Sensitivity to detect small changes in measurement.

Reliability

Consistency of results across measurements.

Validity

Extent of conceptual relationship between measure and property.

Scientific Method

Systematic process for conducting research.

Hypothesis

Testable prediction derived from theories.

Independent Variable

Manipulated factor in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

Measured outcome affected by independent variable.

Control Group

Group not exposed to experimental treatment.

Random Assignment

Randomly placing subjects to avoid bias.

Hawthorne Effect

Behavior changes when participants are observed.

Demand Characteristics

Participants alter behavior based on perceived expectations.

Double-Blind Design

Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments.

Naturalistic Observation

Studying subjects in their natural environment.

Correlational Study

Examines relationship between variables without manipulation.

Descriptive Statistics

Summarizes and organizes sampled data.

Inferential Statistics

Interprets meaningful differences in sampled data.

Measures of Central Tendency

Statistics that summarize data points' center.

Mean

Average calculated as sum divided by count.

Median

Middle value in a sorted data set.

Mode

Most frequently occurring observation in data.

Outliers

Uncharacteristic observations differing significantly from others.

Range

Difference between maximum and minimum values.

Standard Deviation

Dispersion measure from the mean value.

Skewed Distributions

Frequency distributions where mean, median, mode differ.

Scatter Plots

Graphical representation of relationships between variables.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Measures strength and direction of relationships.

Positive Correlation

Both variables increase together.

Negative Correlation

One variable increases while the other decreases.

Sample Size

Number of participants in a study.

Variability Between Groups

Differences between groups indicating stronger effects.

Variability Within Groups

High variability reduces observable group differences.

Statistical Inference

Probabilistic statement about condition differences.

Nuremburg Code

Ethical guidelines for human medical research.

Belmont Principles

Respect, beneficence, and justice in research ethics.

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Ethical violations in long-term human research.

Milgram's Obedience Study

Examined obedience to authority under deception.

Zimbardo's Prison Study

Impact of social roles on behavior.

Research Ethics Boards (REBs)

Review study justification and ethical protocols.

Informed Consent

Approval required by expert panel annually.

Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Focus on understanding over sudden discoveries.

Qualitative Research Methods

Research focusing on non-numerical data.

Animal Research Criteria

Discomfort minimized; benefits for humans and animals.

NIH Animal Research Statistics

91% of studies use mice and rats.

Zebrafish and Drosophila

Increasingly used in animal research studies.

Three R's of Animal Research

Reduction, Refinement, Replacement principles.

Reduction

Minimize the number of animals used.

Refinement

Enhance animal care to reduce suffering.

Replacement

Use alternatives to animal experiments.

Confirmation Bias

Favoring information that supports existing beliefs.

HARKing

Hypothesizing after results are known.

Neural Doctrine

Neuron is the basic organizational unit.

Golgi Stain

Technique to visualize neuron organization.

Glial Cells

Supportive cells in the nervous system.

Multiple Sclerosis

Disease causing myelin damage and fatigue.

Post-Synaptic Effects

Neurotransmitter binding alters membrane potential.

EPSPs

Excitatory post-synaptic potentials increase likelihood of firing.

IPSPs

Inhibitory post-synaptic potentials decrease likelihood of firing.

Key Neurotransmitters

Chemicals influencing brain function and behavior.

Glutamate

primary excitatory NT, learning and memory

Acetylcholine

memory, attention

GABA

primary inhibitor NT

Serotonin

mood > raphe nucleus

depression and SSRIs

Endorphins

pain relief, euphoria

(opioid drugs like heroin, and fentanyl)

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter linked to reward and movement.

Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)

arousal > locus coeruleus

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances altering neural activity and functions.

Stimulants:

drugs that excite (overall) neural activity

speed up bodily functions

caffeine

nicotine

amphetamines

Sedatives/Depressants

Drugs that reduce overall neural activity. Alcohol, barbiturates, opiates

Forebrain

Highest brain level for complex functions.

Cerebral Cortex

Outer layer of forebrain, divided into hemispheres.