Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy

Studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

Physiology

Concerns the function of the body, specifically how body parts work and carry out life-sustaining activities.

Chemical level

Includes atoms, molecules, and organelles.

Cellular level

Comprises a single cell, the basic structural and functional unit of life.

Tissue level

Consists of groups of similar cells working together towards a specific function, with a common embryological origin.

Organ level

Contains two or more types of tissues.

Organ system level

Comprises organs that work closely together.

Organismal level

Involves all organ systems combined to form the whole organism.

Maintaining boundaries

Involves the separation between internal and external environments, such as through plasma membranes and skin.

Movement

Includes the muscular system allowing movement of body parts and substances.

Responsiveness

Refers to the ability to sense and respond to stimuli, such as withdrawal reflex and control of breathing rate.

Digestion

The breakdown of ingested food followed by absorption of simple molecules into the blood.

Metabolism

Comprises all chemical reactions in body cells, including catabolism (breakdown) and anabolism (synthesis).

Excretion

Involves the removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion, such as urea, carbon dioxide, and feces.

Reproduction

At the cellular level, it involves cell division for growth or repair; at the organismal level, it is the production of offspring.

Growth

Refers to the increase in size of a body part or organism.

Integumentary system

Forms the external body covering, protects deeper tissues, synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous receptors and glands.

Skeletal system

Protects and supports body organs, provides a framework for muscles, forms blood cells, and stores minerals.

Muscular system

Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, facial expression, posture maintenance, and heat production.

Nervous system

Acts as the fast-acting control system, responding to internal and external changes by activating muscles and glands.

Endocrine system

Secretes hormones regulating processes like growth, reproduction, and metabolism by body cells.

Cardiovascular system

Involves blood vessels transporting blood carrying oxygen, nutrients, wastes, and the heart pumping blood.

Lymphatic system / Immunity

Picks up leaked fluid, disposes of debris, houses white blood cells, and mounts immune responses.

Respiratory system

Supplies blood with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide through the lungs' air sac walls.

Digestive system

Breaks down food into absorbable units for distribution to body cells, eliminating indigestible foodstuffs as feces.

Urinary system

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes, regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance in the blood.

Reproductive system (Male)

Produces sperm and male sex hormones, aiding in sperm delivery to the female reproductive tract.

Reproductive system (Female)

Produces eggs and female sex hormones, serves as sites for fertilization and fetal development, and produces milk for newborn nourishment.

Nutrients

Essential factors for survival that must be in appropriate amounts, including oxygen, water, normal body temperature, and appropriate atmospheric pressure.

Homeostasis

The condition of maintaining the body's internal environment in a relatively constant state.

Homeostatic imbalance

Anything that disturbs or alters the balance of the internal environment.

Homeostatic control mechanisms

Self-regulating mechanisms involving receptors, control centers, and effectors to maintain a steady state.

Negative feedback

A mechanism where the output shuts off or reduces the stimulus's intensity, functioning in the opposite direction of the initial change.

Positive feedback

A mechanism where the response enhances the stimulus, accelerating the response in the same direction.

Matter

Anything with mass and occupies space

Weight

Mass plus effects of gravity

Solid

Definite shape and volume

Liquid

Changeable shape; definite volume

Gas

Changeable shape and volume

Energy

Capacity to do work or put matter into motion

Kinetic energy

Energy in action

Potential energy

Stored (inactive) energy

Chemical energy

Stored in bonds of chemical substances

Electrical energy

Results from movement of charged particles

Mechanical energy

Directly involved in moving matter

Radiant energy

Travels in waves (e.g., heat, visible light)

Elements

Substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical methods

Atoms

Unique building blocks for each element

Atomic symbol

Chemical shorthand for each element

Protons

Carry a positive charge and weigh 1 atomic mass unit

Neutrons

Have no charge and weigh 1 atomic mass unit

Electrons

Carry a negative charge and have virtually no weight

Atomic number

Number of protons in nucleus

Mass number

Total number of protons and neutrons in nucleus

Isotopes

Structural variations of the same element with different mass numbers

Molecule

General term for 2 or more atoms bonded together

Compound

Specific molecule with 2 or more different kinds of atoms bonded together

Solutions

Homogeneous mixtures with evenly distributed particles

Colloids

Heterogeneous mixtures with particles not evenly distributed

Suspensions

Heterogeneous mixtures with large, visible solutes that settle out, e.g., water and sand mixture.

Chemical Bonds

Energy relationships between electrons of reacting atoms determining bond formation and type.

Electron Shells

Areas around the nucleus containing electrons with specific energy levels; shells fill sequentially.

Valence Shell

Outermost electron shell with the highest potential energy, involved in chemical reactions.

Octet Rule

Atoms tend to have 8 electrons in the valence shell, except for smaller atoms like H and He.

Ionic Bonds

Formed by electron transfer between atoms, resulting in charged ions and attraction.

Covalent Bonds

Formed by sharing valence shell electrons between atoms, creating single, double, or triple bonds.

Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

Equal electron sharing between atoms, leading to electrically balanced molecules like CO2.

Polar Covalent Bonds

Unequal electron sharing creating electrically polar molecules due to different electron-attracting abilities.

Hydrogen Bonds

Weak attractive force between hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom of another.

Chemical Reactions

Occur when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken, represented by chemical equations.

Synthesis Reactions

Atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex molecule, used in anabolic processes.

Decomposition Reactions

Molecule breaks down into smaller molecules or constituent atoms, involved in catabolic reactions.

Exchange Reactions

Involve both synthesis and decomposition, with bonds being made and broken simultaneously.

Energy Flow in Reactions

Reactions are exergonic (release energy) or endergonic (absorb energy) affecting potential energy.

Rate of Reactions

Affected by factors like temperature, concentration, particle size, and catalysts.

Inorganic Compounds

Include water, salts, acids, and bases, essential for various biological functions.

Water

Most abundant inorganic compound with unique properties like high heat capacity and solvent properties.

Salts

Ionic compounds that dissociate into cations and anions in water, crucial for body functions.

Acids and Bases

Acids release H+ ions, bases accept H+ ions; pH scale measures hydrogen ion concentration.

pH Scale

Measurement of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, determining its acidity or basicity.

Organic Compounds

Molecules containing carbon, except CO2 and CO, forming the basis of life.

Carbohydrates

Include sugars and starches, with monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides as classes.

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars containing three to seven carbon atoms, the monomers of carbohydrates

(CH2O)n

General formula for monosaccharides, where n represents the number of carbon atoms

Pentose sugars

Include ribose and deoxyribose

Hexose sugars

Include glucose (blood sugar)

Disaccharides

Double sugars formed by dehydration synthesis of two monosaccharides, including sucrose, maltose, and lactose

Polysaccharides

Polymers of monosaccharides formed by dehydration synthesis, such as starch (plants) and glycogen (animals)

Triglycerides or neutral fats

Composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule, serving as energy storage, insulation, and protection

Saturated fatty acids

All carbons linked via single covalent bonds, solid at room temperature (e.g., animal fats)

Unsaturated fatty acids

One or more carbons linked via double bonds, liquid at room temperature (e.g., plant oils like olive oil)

Phospholipids

Modified triglycerides with a phosphorus-containing group, crucial in cell membrane structure

Steroids

Consist of four interlocking ring structures, including cholesterol, vitamin D, and steroid hormones

Proteins

Molecules with diverse functions, polymers of amino acids held by peptide bonds, with four structural levels determining shape and function

Amino Acids

Protein building blocks with 20 types, differing by 'R groups' present

Four levels of protein structure

Primary (linear sequence), secondary (interactions), tertiary (further interactions), and quaternary (interaction of different polypeptides)

Fibrous proteins

Strandlike, water-insoluble proteins providing support and strength (e.g., keratin, collagen)

Globular proteins

Compact, water-soluble proteins with specific functional regions (e.g., antibodies, enzymes)

Denaturation

Unfolding of globular proteins, losing their 3-D shape, often due to pH or temperature changes

Enzymes

Biological catalysts lowering activation energy, increasing reaction speed, and specific to substrates