GEOLOGY M1 PART 2 (MINERALS, COAL, AND PETROLEUM)

Tetragonal

zircon and cassiterite

Mineralogy

Study of Minerals; Mode of formation, composition, occurrence, types, association,properties uses , and others, of minerals

Minerals

naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid, definable chemical composition, orderly arrangement of atoms, and generally inorganic

Importance of Mineralogy

maintaining standard of living
▪ enriching lives with inherent beauty
▪ comprise the data bank

Native Elements (Kinds of Minerals)

not chemically combined with other elements but occur in the free state

Sulfides (Kinds of Minerals)

based on the sulfide ion, S2-. Some are mined as sources of such metals as zinc, lead, copper, and tin.

Oxides (Kinds of Minerals)

based on the oxygen anion, O2-

Sulfates (Kinds of Minerals)

have the polyatomic sulfate ion, (SO4)2-▪ Hydrous Sulfates and Anydrous Sulfates

Carbonates (Kinds of Minerals)

based on the carbonate ion, (CO3)2-. Tend to dissolve relatively easily in water (acid water) and natural rain water (slightly acid)

Halides (Kinds of Minerals)

halogen element as the anion (F-, Cl-, Br-, I-, At-). Often formed through evaporation of the water

Silicates (SiO4)4- (Kinds of Minerals)

most common minerals in the earth's crust and mantle. Ranges from simple to complex molecular and crystalline structure

Phosphates, tungstate, molybdates, urinates, vanadates , arsenates and others (Kinds of Minerals)

made up of oxygen plus non metals and metals such as phosphorous, tungsten, molybdenum, uranium, vanadium, or arsenic.

Igneous Rocks

solidify from molten rock called magma within the earth and lava on the surface

Sedimentary Rocks

layered rocks

Metamorphic rocks

form when either igneous or sedimentary rocks are changed by environmental factors

Igneous Minerals

high melting point

Basic / Mafic Igneous Rocks

dark-colored (olivine, pyroxenes, Ca-feldspar (plagioclase), amphiboles, and biotite)

Silicic Igneous Rocks

light-color (granites, granodiorites, and rhyolites, and abundant minerals include quartz, muscovite, and alkali feldspars)

Pegmatite

very coarse-grained and similar to silicic igneous rocks. Incompatible elements are; Li, Be, B, P, Rb, Sr, Y, Nb, rare earths, Cs, and Ta

Sedimentary Minerals

either stable in low-temperature hydrous environments or are high temperature minerals

Detrital Sedimentary Minerals

quartz, gold, diamond, apatite and other phosphates, calcite, and clays

Evaporite Sedimentary Minerals

calcite, gypsum, anhydrite, halite and sylvite, plus some of the borate minerals

Metamorphic Minerals

crystallized from other minerals

Low-grade metamorphic mineral

temperatures of 60 º to 400 º C and pressures < .5 Gpa. Examples; zeolites, chlorites, and andalusite

High grade metamorphic mineral

temperatures > 400 º and/or pressures > .5 Gpa. Examples; sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, epidote, and amphiboles

Hydrothermal Minerals

minerals precipitated from hot aqueous solutions. Grouped with metamorphic environments

High Temperature Hydrothermal

gold, silver, tungstate minerals, chalcopyrite, bornite, the tellurides, and molybdenite

Low Temperature Hydrothermal

barite, gold, cinnabar, pyrite, and cassiterite

Oxydized Hydrothermal

oxides, sulfates and carbonates of the chalcophile metals

Economic Value of Metallic Minerals

valuable metals for commercial use▪ iron, aluminum, manganese, magnesium, titanium▪ occasionally but rarely occur as a single element

Economic Value of Non-Metallic Minerals

valuable for their properties as chemical compounds▪ halite for sodium chloride and borax for borates▪ gypsum for plaster and kaolin▪ apatite for phosphate and sylvite▪ diamond and corrundum

Economic Value of Mineral Deposits

Ore (quartz and gold; molybdenum, tin and tungsten; copper, lead and zinc; platinum and palladium)▪ Hydrothermal, Magmatic, Sedimentary, Placer, Residual

Economic Value of Mineral Utilization

Surface Mining and Hydraulic Mining

Relevance to Engineering

Some rocks / stones / minerals used inbuilding construction
➢ They map the surface distribution of minerals
➢ Study specimens from drillings of several kilometers depth in the earth's crust

Crystallography

study of the crystal lattice structure of minerals

Crystal

symmetrical masses with definite angular geometric shapes

Lattice

basic formation that the atoms or ions make to form crystal

Crystallographic Systems

Isometric
Tetragonal
Hexagonal
Orthorombic
Monoclinic
Triclinic

Isometric

halite, magnetite, and garnet

Hexagonal

calcite, dolomite, low quartz, and tourmaline

Orthorombic

olivine and barite

Monoclinic

pyroxene, amphibole, orthoclase, azurite, and malachite, among many other

Triclinic

plagioclase and axinite

Color (Physical properties of minerals)

may be diagnostic for a few minerals, but in general, minerals can have a range. Iridescence

Streak (Physical properties of minerals)

color of the pulverized powder of a mineral▪ More consistent than color. Found by scraping a mineral against a porcelain plate

Luster (Physical properties of minerals)

the way a mineral's surface scatters light. Can be Classy, Metallic, or Pearly.

Hardness (Physical properties of minerals)

measure to resist scratching / abrasion▪ represents the strength of bonds in the crystal lattice.

Friedrich Mohs

developed mohs hardness scale (qualitative)

Talc

softest mineral

Diamond

hardest mineral

Specific Gravity (Physical properties of minerals)

weight of a substance divided by the weight of an equal volume of water. A way of expressing density (weight/volume)

Crystal Shape.Structure (Physical properties of minerals)

mineral's consistent shape

Cleavage (Physical properties of minerals)

tendency of a mineral to break along a plane of weakness int he crystal lattice. produces flat, shiny surfaces

Fracture (Physical properties of minerals)

the mineral breaks in no consistent manner. Equal bond strength in all directions

Degree of Transparency (Physical properties of minerals)

depends on the chemical composition,impurities present, inclusions, weathering,and also on thickness

Tenacity (Physical properties of minerals)

balances, flexibility, elasticity, sectility and malleability etc. Sectile - cut with knife

Conchiodal fracture

Type of fracture; The broken surfaces shows concentric rings or curved surface.

Even

Type of fracture; When the broken surface is smooth and flat

Uneven Fracture

Type of fracture; When the mineral breaks with an irregularSurface. It is a common fracture of many Minerals

Splintery Structure

Type of fracture; When the mineral breaks with a rough surface

Striations

Special properties of mineral; Commonly found on plagioclase feldspar. Straight, parallel lines on one or more of the cleavage planes caused by mineral twinning.

Double Refraction

Special properties of mineral; Seen in calcite crystals. Light is split or refracted into two components giving rise to two distinct images. Measured with a Refractometer

Magnetism

Special properties of mineral; Property of a substance such that it will spontaneous orient itself within a magnetic field.
▪ Magnetite (Fe3O4) has this property and it can be used to distinguish it from other non-magnetite iron oxides, such ashematite (Fe2O3).

Quartz Family

the most abundant mineral in Earth's crust• extremely resistant to weathering• highly resistant to physical and chemical weathering• used to make time pieces because it vibrates at a precise frequency

Feldspar Family

The most abundant group of minerals in Earth's crust.

Augite

common rock-forming mineral of dark-colored igneous rocks. The most abundant pyroxene mineral, can play an important role in the composition of gabbro, basalt, diorite, and andesite

Pyroxene Group

group of dark-colored rock-forming minerals found in igneous and metamorphic rocks throughout the world. They form under conditions of high temperature and/or high pressure

Hornblende

common rock-forming mineral found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. A group of dark-colored amphibole minerals

Amphibole

It shows double chain silicate structure• Rich in calcium, magnesium, iron oxide and Mn, Na, K and H

Biotite

group of black mica minerals found in igneous and metamorphic rocks

Mica group

Form sheet like structure
• Can be spilt into very thin sheets along one direction.
Rich in Aluminum and magnesium. Occupy 4% of earth crust

Muscovite

most abundant mica ; used
in a variety of construction
materials and manufactured
products

Calcite

principal constituent of limestone and marble. Suitable for a variety of uses due to its unique properties.

Garnet

Best known as a red gemstone and birthstone of January. Occurs in many colors and has many industrial uses.

Coal

combustible, sedimentary, organic rock, formed from vegetation. It is a fossil fuel created from the remains of plants that lived millions of years ago. And is considered as a non renewable source ofenergy because it takes too much time toform.

Density (Coal)

- ranges from approximately 1.1 to about 1.5 Mg/m3, or g/cm3 (1 Mg/m3= 1g/cm3).
- lightly denser than water and significantly less dense than most rock and mineral matter

Porosity (Coal)

3 Size Ranges of Pores:
a) macropores (diameter greater than 50 nm);
b) mesopores (diameter 2 to 50 nm); and
c) micropores (diameter less than 2 nm)
▪ important in the production of coke, gasification, liquefaction, and the generation of high-surface-area carbon for purifying water and gases coke

Reflectivity (Coal)

measured by shining a beam of monochromatic light (with
a wavelength of 546 nm) on a polished surface of the vitrinite macerals
in a coal sample and measuring the percentage of the light reflected
with a photometer

Other properties of Coal

➢Hardness
➢ Grindability
➢ Ash-fusion Temperature
➢ Free-swelling Index

Coal and Climate Change

Greenhouse Effect
• Carbon capture and storage (carbon sequestration)

Peat

Types of Coal; less than 60% from swamp plants. a soft, organic material consisting of partly decayed plant and mineral matter

Subbituminous

Types of Coal; 71% - 77% black lignite, a type of coal whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal and are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation.

Lignite

Types of Coal; 60% - 70% brown coal. The lowest grade coal with the least concentration of carbon

Bituminous

Types of Coal; 77% - 87% soft coal. A middle rank coal between subbituminous and anthracite. Usually has a high heating value and is used in electricity generation and steel making in the United States.

Anthracite

Types of Coal; >87% hard coal. The highest rank of coal. A hard, brittle, and black lustrous coal, often referred to as hard coal, containing a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter.

Petroleum

liquid which occurs naturally in rock formations. It consists of a complex mixture of different molecular weights of hydrocarbons, plus other organic compounds.

Crude oil

"mother of all commodities", Other term for petroleum

petra

rock

oleum

oil

Properties of Petroleum 1

range from very fluid, volatile liquids to viscous, semisolid materials

Properties of Petroleum 2

The color is usually black or black with a greenish tinge (reddish, greenish yellow, light yellow, or transparent)

Properties of Petroleum 3

The smell ranges from gasoline (sweet crude) to foul (sour crude) to fruity (crude oil rich in aromatic-type molecules).

Properties of Petroleum 4

Natural gas is a colorless, odorless gas that burns. An artificial odorant is put in natural gas before it is sold.

Properties of Petroleum 5

Crude oil density is measured in degrees American Petroleum Institute(°API) gravity.
• Degrees API gravity is calculated by dividing the specific gravity of thecrude oil at 60° F into 141.5 and then subtracting 131.5. Fresh water is 10°API gravity.
• Crude oils range from 5 to 55°.
• Average-weight oils are between 22 and 31°.

Light Oils (Properties of Petroleum)

Above 31°. They are more fluid and contain more gasoline than normal crude oil. Easiest to produce and are more valuable than heavy oils because they contain more gasoline

Heavy Oils (Properties of Petroleum)

Below 22°. They are more viscous and contain more asphalt than normal crude oil

Extra Heavy Oils (Properties of Petroleum)

Less than 10° and sink in water because they are denser than water. Condensates are very light, with degrees API gravities above 50.

Sweet crude oil (Properties of Petroleum)

most valuable at 37° API gravity.

Asphalt-based crude oils

Types of Petroleum;
usually black.
• 2% less wax
• sticky and in a semi-solid or liquid state
• When refined, they produce a relatively large amount of high-quality gasoline and asphalt.

Paraffin-based crude oils

Types of Petroleum; black with a greenish tinge.
• When refined, they produce a relatively large amount of paraffin wax and high-quality motor lubricating oil.