Biology and Chemistry Fundamentals Lecture Notes

A collection of vocabulary flashcards covering basic cell biology, organic chemistry, and water properties based on the provided lecture notes summary.

Ribosome

A cellular structure responsible for protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic reticulum

A system of membranes involved in protein and lipid synthesis and transport.

Golgi apparatus

An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport.

Lysosome

A membrane-bound organelle containing digestive enzymes that break down macromolecules and cellular waste.

Vacuole

A membrane-bound organelle used for storage of water, ions, and other substances.

Mitochondrion

An organelle where aerobic cellular respiration occurs and ATP is produced.

Chloroplast

An organelle found in plants and algae where photosynthesis occurs.

Peroxisome

An organelle that breaks down fatty acids and detoxifies certain molecules.

Cytoskeleton

A network of protein fibers that helps maintain cell shape, organize organelles, and enable movement.

Microtubules

Hollow cytoskeletal structures involved in maintaining cell shape, movement, and chromosome separation.

Ion

An atom or molecule with an electrical charge because it gained or lost electrons.

Ionic bond

A chemical bond formed by the attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Hydrogen bond

A weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom, often oxygen or nitrogen.

Cohesion

The attraction between molecules of the same substance, such as water molecules sticking together.

Adhesion

The attraction between molecules of different substances, such as water sticking to glass.

Evaporative cooling

Cooling that occurs when molecules with high energy leave a liquid through evaporation.

Hydrophilic

"Water-loving"; a substance that interacts easily with water.

Hydrophobic

"Water-fearing"; a substance that does not mix well with water.

Solute

A substance dissolved in another substance.

Hypothesis

A suggested explanation for an observation that can be tested.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment and changes because of the independent variable.

Independent variable

The variable that is controlled or changed by the experimenter.

Control variable

A factor kept the same during an experiment so it does not affect the results.

Covalent bond

A chemical bond formed when atoms share electrons.

Molecule

A chemical structure made of at least two atoms held together by chemical bonds.

Electronegativity

The ability of an atom to attract electrons toward itself.

Nonpolar covalent bond

A bond where electrons are shared equally between atoms.

Polar covalent bond

A bond where electrons are shared unequally because one atom attracts electrons more strongly.

Tertiary structure

The overall three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide chain.

Quaternary structure

The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains that form one functional protein.

Nucleic acid

A biological macromolecule used to store and transmit genetic information; includes DNA and RNA.

Plasma membrane

The selectively permeable membrane that surrounds a cell and separates the cell's internal environment from the external environment.

Prokaryotic cells

Cells that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Organelles

Specialized structures within a cell that perform specific cellular functions.

Eukaryotic cells

Cells that contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Nucleus

A membrane-bound organelle that houses the cell's DNA.

Hypertonic

A solution with a higher concentration of solutes compared with another solution.

Hypotonic

A solution with a lower concentration of solutes compared with another solution.

Isotonic

A solution with equal solute concentrations compared with another solution.

Facilitated diffusion

Passive transport in which substances move across a membrane through transport proteins without energy input.

Active transport

The movement of substances across a membrane against their concentration gradient using cellular energy.

Cotransport

A form of active transport where the movement of one substance down its gradient provides energy to move another substance.

Exocytosis

A process where vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release contents outside the cell.

Endocytosis

A process where the plasma membrane folds inward to bring materials into the cell.

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis where the cell engulfs large particles.

Cilia

Short, numerous hair-like structures that help move substances along the cell surface.

Flagella

Long structures that extend from cells and help with movement.

Cell walls

Rigid structures outside the plasma membrane that provide support and protection.

Fluid mosaic model

The model describing the plasma membrane as a flexible phospholipid bilayer with proteins and other molecules embedded within it.

Selectively permeable

A property of membranes that allows certain substances to pass while restricting others.

Transport proteins

Membrane proteins that assist substances in moving across the plasma membrane.

Diffusion

The movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Concentration gradient

A difference in the concentration of a substance across a space or membrane.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis where the cell takes in extracellular fluid and dissolved substances.

Solvent

The substance that dissolves the solute.

Hydrocarbons

Organic molecules made only of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Polymers

Large molecules made of repeating smaller units called monomers.

Monomers

Small building-block molecules that join together to form polymers.

Dehydration reaction

A reaction that joins molecules together by removing a water molecule.

Hydrolysis

A reaction that breaks molecules apart by adding water.

Carbohydrate

A biological molecule made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; used for energy and structural support.

Monosaccharides

The simplest form of carbohydrates; single sugar molecules.

Polysaccharides

Large carbohydrate polymers made of many monosaccharides joined together.

Lipids

A group of molecules that includes fats, oils, and steroids; often used for energy storage and membranes.

Phospholipids

Lipids made of a phosphate group, glycerol, and fatty acids; they form cell membranes.

Proteins

Large biological molecules made of amino acids that perform many functions in cells.

Polypeptide

A chain of amino acids linked together.

Amino acids

Small organic molecules that are the building blocks of proteins.

Primary structure

The specific sequence of amino acids in a protein.

Secondary structure

Local folding patterns of a protein caused by hydrogen bonding.