Chapter 2: The Biological Perspective Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering the key terms, biological structures, nervous system divisions, brain anatomy, and research methods presented in Chapter 2.

Nervous System

A network of cells that carry information to and from all parts of the body.

Neuroscience

A branch of life sciences that deals with the structure and function of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue that form the nervous system.

Behavioral Neuroscience

Also known as biological psychology; a subfield of psychology that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning.

Neuron

The basic cell that makes up the nervous system and receives and sends messages within that system.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.

Soma

The cell body of the neuron, responsible for maintaining the life of the cell.

Axon

A long, tube-like structure attached to the soma that carries the neural message to other cells.

Axon Terminals

Rounded areas at the end of the branches at the end of the axon, responsible for communicating with other nerve cells.

Myelin

Fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse.

Glial Cells

Cells that provide support for neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, and clean up waste products and dead neurons.

Oligodendrocytes

A specific type of glial cell that produces myelin for neurons in the Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord).

Schwann Cells

A specific type of glial cell that produces myelin for neurons in the Peripheral Nervous System (the body).

Resting Potential

The state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse, characterized by negatively charged ions inside the cell and positively charged ions outside.

Action Potential

The release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon, allowing positive sodium ions ($Na^+$) to enter the cell.

All-or-None Law

The principle referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

Synaptic Vesicles

Sac-like structures found inside the axon terminal containing chemicals called neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical found in synaptic vesicles which, when released, travels across the synaptic gap to have an effect on the next cell.

Synapse (Synaptic Gap)

Microscopic fluid-filled space between the rounded areas on the end of the axon terminals of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell.

Receptor Sites

Three-dimensional proteins on the surface of dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters (like a lock and key).

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

A neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to fire.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

A neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to stop firing.

Agonists

Chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell.

Antagonists

Chemical substances that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles.

Major Neurotransmitters and Functions

A summary chart detailing key neurotransmitters (ACh, NE, DA, 5-HT, GABA, Glutamate, Endorphins) and their primary excitatory or inhibitory roles in the body.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Spinal Cord

A long bundle of neurons that carries messages to and from the body to the brain and is responsible for fast, life-saving reflexes.

Sensory (Afferent) Neuron

A neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system.

Motor (Efferent) Neuron

A neuron that carries messages from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body.

Interneuron

A neuron found in the center of the spinal cord that receives information from sensory neurons and sends commands to muscles through motor neurons.

Neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of cells in response to experience or trauma.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord but run through the body itself; divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Somatic Nervous System

Division of the PNS consisting of nerves that carry information from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the body.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Division of the PNS consisting of nerves that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands.

Sympathetic Division

Part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal ('fight-or-flight' system).

Parasympathetic Division

Part of the autonomic nervous system that restores the body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for day-to-day functioning of organs and glands ('eat-drink-and-rest' system).

Endocrine Glands

Glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Pituitary Gland

Gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormone-secreting glands (known as the master gland).

Pineal Gland

Endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum that secretes melatonin.

Thyroid Gland

Endocrine gland found in the neck that regulates metabolism.

Pancreas

Endocrine gland that controls the levels of sugar in the blood.

Adrenal Glands

Endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that secrete over thirty different hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt intake, and provide a secondary source of sex hormones.

Lesioning Studies

An invasive research technique in which a thin, insulated wire is inserted into the brain to send an electrical current that destroys the brain cells at its tip.

Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)

An invasive brain stimulation technique in which an impulse generator implanted under the skin sends electrical impulses to electrodes placed in target areas of the deep brain.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

A noninvasive brain stimulation technique using magnetic pulses applied to the cortex with special copper wire coils placed over the head.

Computed Tomography (CT)

A brain-imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain to map structure.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed structural images of the brain.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A device that records the electrical activity of cortical neurons using scalp electrodes.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A functional brain-imaging method where radioactive sugar is injected into the subject and compiled by a computer into a color-coded image of brain activity.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

A functional brain-imaging technique that uses MRI images across time to track changes in blood oxygen levels and produce a video-like map of brain activity.

Major Structures of the Human Brain

A comprehensive view of the key anatomical regions of the human brain including the cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, amygdala, cerebellum, pons, medulla, and reticular formation.

Medulla

The lowest part of the brain located at the first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord; responsible for life-sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.

Pons

The larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the bottom; plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left-right body coordination, and arousal.

Reticular Formation (RF)

An area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond; responsible for selective attention.

Cerebellum

Part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement.

Limbic System

A group of several brain structures located under the cortex involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation.

Thalamus

Part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain that relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex.

Hypothalamus

Small structure in the limbic system located below the thalamus and directly above the pituitary gland, responsible for motivated behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex.

Hippocampus

Curved structure located within each temporal lobe; responsible for the formation of long-term memories and the storage of memory for location of objects.

Amygdala

Brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and the memory of fear.

Cingulate Cortex

The primary cortical component of the limbic system found in the cortex, playing important roles in cognitive and emotional processing.

Cortex

Outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons; responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input.

Corticalization

The wrinkling of the cortex, allowing a much larger surface area of cortical cells to exist within the small space inside the skull.

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of neurons (neural fibers) that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

Occipital Lobe

Section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the visual centers of the brain.

Parietal Lobes

Sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, taste, and temperature sensations.

Somatosensory Cortex

Area of neurons running down the front of the parietal lobes responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, body position, and taste.

Temporal Lobes

Areas of the cortex located just behind the temples containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech.

Frontal Lobes

Areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain, responsible for higher mental processes, decision making, and the production of fluent speech.

Motor Cortex

Section of the frontal lobe located at the back, responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system.

Association Areas

Areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing.

Broca's Aphasia

A condition resulting from damage to Broca's area (usually in the left frontal lobe) that causes the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, mispronounce words, and speak haltingly.

Specialization of the Two Hemispheres

A comparison showing the functional differences between the left hemisphere (language, math, logic, detail analysis) and right hemisphere (nonverbal, spatial, music/art, pattern/face recognition).