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Principles of Psychology 101 Final Exam Study set
Intelligence
The ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, solve problems, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges.
IQ test
Originally developed to measure mental abilities in children, reflecting mental age compared to chronological age.
Mental age
The level of performance typical of children of a specific chronological age.
Stanford-Binet Test
An adaptation of Binet’s test for American school children, used to identify intelligence.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
A measure of intelligence where the average score is set at 100.
Standardization
Establishing norms by testing a large group of people to score IQ tests accurately.
Flynn Effect
The observed rise in intelligence test scores over the past 60 years.
Reliability
The stability of test scores over time.
Validity
The ability of IQ tests to measure what they claim to measure.
General intelligence (g)
A single, overarching factor that influences intelligence, proposed by Charles Spearman.
Fluid intelligence
The ability to think logically and abstractly and the flexibility of information processing.
Crystallized intelligence
Knowledge gained through experience, including vocabulary and cultural information.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
A theory of intelligence comprising three dimensions: analytical, creative, and practical.
Emotional Intelligence
The ability to recognize, understand, and manage one's own emotions and the emotions of others.
Heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genetic factors.
Early environment
The conditions and experiences in early life that can significantly impact intelligence.
Contributors to Intelligence
Factors that include genes, environment, and their interactions, along with motivation and effort.
Decision Making
The process of selecting the best choice among several possible options.
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts that reduce complexity of thinking, enabling quick decision-making but may not always lead to the best conclusions.
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of a particular outcome based on how well it seems to represent a prototype, often neglecting the base rate.
Availability Heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily they are recalled from memory.
Framing Effects
The influence on decision-making based on how options are presented, either emphasizing potential loss or gain.
Affective Forecasting
The process of predicting how we will feel in the future; often inaccurate.
Maximizers
Individuals who strive to make the perfect choice and often feel less happy with their decisions.
Satisficers
Individuals who make a 'good enough' choice and often report greater happiness with their decisions.
Functional Fixedness
The tendency to think of objects only in terms of their familiar functions, hindering problem-solving.
Insight
A sudden realization of a solution to a problem, often occurring during problem-solving.
Restructuring
Representing a problem in a new way to reveal solutions that were not initially apparent.
Category
A group of objects, ideas, events that share properties, which reduces the amount of information we need to store.
Concept
A mental representation of a category.
Prototype Model
A model where each category is represented by a prototype, or a single best example.
Exemplar Model
A representation that includes all individual examples (exemplars) of a category stored in memory.
Prototype
The best or most typical example of a category.
Schemas
Mental structures that help us perceive, organize, and understand information in specific settings.
Script
A schema that directs behavior over time.
Stereotypes
Simplified and generalized beliefs about a group of people, leading to oversimplification and overgeneralization.
Cognitive Efficiency
Achieving goals with minimal mental effort, often using schemas and scripts.
Oversimplification
The tendency to simplify complex information or perspectives, often leading to stereotypes.
Overgeneralization
Making broad conclusions based on limited or specific instances.
Sensory Memory
The first stage in explicit memory formation, briefly recording sensory input in its original format.
Iconic Memory
Type of sensory memory that pertains to visual stimuli.
Echoic Memory
Type of sensory memory that pertains to auditory stimuli.
Working Memory
A system that manipulates information; it has a limited capacity (4-7 items) and duration (about 20 seconds).
Chunking
The process of organizing information into meaningful units to enhance memory retention.
Long Term Memory
The phase of memory storage that retains information over extended periods of time.
Primacy Effect
The tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list better, reflecting long-term memory.
Recency Effect
The tendency to remember items at the end of a list better, reflecting working memory.
Consolidation
The gradual formation of lasting neural connections representing long-term memory.
Long Term Potentiation (LTP)
A process involved in consolidation that strengthens synaptic connections, making it easier for neuron activation.
Flashbulb Memories
Strong, vivid memories of unique, highly emotionally charged experiences.
Reconsolidation
The process by which memories are sometimes updated and strengthened after being retrieved.
Sperling’s Research
A study demonstrating the capacity of iconic memory by showing letters briefly and testing recall.
Memory Span
The capacity of an individual to remember a sequence of numbers or letters.
Neurons that fire together wire together
A phrase summarizing Hebbian learning, which states that connections between neurons strengthen through simultaneous activation.
Memory
Persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
Encoding
The process of changing information into a neural code.
Storage
The maintenance of information for a period of time.
Retrieval
The process of accessing information for use.
Human Memory vs Computers
Humans do not remember everything perfectly; they may forget context or details.
Anterograde Amnesia
The inability to form new memories after a certain date, as seen in Patient H.M.
Retrograde Amnesia
The inability to remember past events.
Implicit Memory
Memories that are not verbalized, including procedural memory and priming.
Explicit Memory
Memories that can be consciously retrieved and reported.
Episodic Memory
A type of explicit memory for specific experiences that occurred in a particular time and place.
Semantic Memory
A type of explicit memory for facts and meanings.
Elaborative Rehearsal
A strategy that focuses on the meaning of information and relates it to existing knowledge.
Mnemonics
Memory aids that utilize imagery or the first letters of items to enhance recall.
Schemas
Mental structures that guide attention and help to organize and understand information.
Note 
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