APES EXAM (ULTIMATE STUDY PACKET)

Endangered Species Examples

- Bald Eagle: recovered and removed from list
- Red Wolf: low point was 17 indv
- Cali Condor: most expensive conservation project ever in US

The Greenhouse Effect

warming that results when solar radiation is trapped by the atmosphere by greenhouse gases

Biomes

large regions characterized by distinct climate and organisms, made up of many ecosystems

Ectones

regions where two ecosystems merge

Photosynthesis

Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy (6CO2 + 6H20+Sun => C6-H12-O6+6O2 + energy)

aerobic respiration

Respiration that requires oxygen

anaerobic respiration

Respiration that does not require oxygen, creates methane gas/ethyl alcohol/acetic acid/hydrogen sulfide

Energy lost per trophic level

90%

1st law of thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed

GPP (gross primary productivity)

rate at which producers convert solar energy to chemicals

NPP (Net Primary Productivity)

GPP - R(respiratory loss)

law of tolerance

Degree to which living organisms are capable of tolerating changes in their environment

limiting factor principle

Too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or prevent growth of a population of a species in an ecosystem, even if all other factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance for the species.

Hydrological Cycle

- Evaporation
- Condensation
- Precipitation
- Transpiration (evaporation from plants)
- Infiltration (water into soil)
- Percolation (downward flow of water through soil to aquifers)
- Runoff (downslope water movement to sea)

Photosynthesis (Carbon Cycle)

plants take CO2 and convert to carbohydrates

Respiration (Carbon Cycle)

Consumers breathe, and turn carbohydrates into CO2

Decomp (Carbon Cycle)

Decomposers turn carbohydrates into CO2

Compaction (Carbon Cycle)

biomass is buried and compressed into fossil fuels

Combustion (Carbon Cycle)

fossil fuel biomass is burned, releases CO2

Absorption (Carbon Cycle)

Oceans absorb massive amounts of CO2, convert to Carbonic Acid, lowering their PH

How much of the atmosphere is nitrogen?

78%

Why do bacteria/lightening need to convert Nitrogen gas into other compounds?

So that multicellular organisms can take it in

All compounds in the Nitrogen Cycle (6)

N2 (Nitrogen Gas)
NH3 (Ammonia)
NH4 (Ammonium)
NO3 (Nitrate)
NO2 (Nitrite)
Protein

Nitrogen Fixation (Nitrogen Cycle)

Process of converting nitrogen gas (N2) into ammonia (NH3)

Nitrification (Nitrogen Cycle)

Ammonia ->NO2 (nitrite) -> NO3 (Nitrate) by bacteria

Assimilation (Nitrogen Cycle)

plant roots take up NH3/NH4/NO3, convert into complex organic molecules

Ammonification (Nitrogen Cycle)

Decomposers break down complex organic molecules -> NH3/NH4 (Ammonium)

Denitrification (Nitrogen Cycle)

process by which bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen gas (N2)

Phosphorus Cycle

- weathering (slow breakdown of terrestrial phosphate)
- runoff (phosphate into aquatic systems through percipitation)
- assimilation (producers take up phosphorus, then consumers eat producers)
- deposition (return of phosphorus to soil through decay)

Tragedy of the Commons

situation in which people acting individually and in their own interest use up commonly available but limited resources, creating disaster for the entire community

Human Intervention in Biogeochemical Cycles

- Withdrawing large amounts of water faster than can be replenished
- runoff of phosphate/nitrogen into water from agriculture
- Clearing vegetation: increases runoff, reduces infiltration, decreases CO2 absorption
- Slash/burn agriculture- reduces phosphate in ecosystem, releases CO2
- Burning fossil fuels

Radiometric Dating

elements emit particles/energy at a consistent, measurable rate called a half life

Biological evolution

change to populations genetic makeup through generations

Process of Evolution

- Mutation of dna
- natural selection
- gene flow (movement of genes between populations)
- genetic drift (fluctuations of gene frequency in gene pool)

Speciation

two spiecies arise from one

species diversity/richness

Number of different species in the biosphere

biodiversity

the variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem.

Island Biogeography

species diversity of island is determined by the immigration/extinction rate. These are affected by SIZE of island and DISTANCE from mainland. Most optimal is large island near mainland.

generalist species

species with a broad ecological niche

specialist species

species with a narrow ecological niche

indicator species

species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged

keystone species

A species that influences the survival of many other species in an ecosystem (normally top predator)

foundation species

key role in shaping ecosystem (ex. beavers)

positive/negative feedback loops

positive loops increase effect, negative keep it in balance

ocean acidification

decreasing pH of ocean waters due to absorption of excess atmospheric CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels

convergent evolution

Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments

resource partitioning

dividing up resources so that they are used at diff times/ways, animals dont want competition

parasitism

One organism benefits and the other is harmed

Mutualsim

relationship where both organisms benefit

commensalism

one organism benefits and the other is unaffected

Founder effect

genetic drift that occurs after a small number of individuals colonize a new area

demographic bottleneck

A population founded when just a few members of a species survive a catastrophic event or colonize new habitat geographically isolated from other members of the same species.

carrying capacity (K)

Maximum population size that a particular environment can support.

exponential growth

J shaped curve, population has no restrictions

logistic growth

s shaped curve, populations has small/steady increase until k is reached

R selected species

j curve, high increase rate, small, unprotected kids, high mortality, short life

k selected species

s curve, low increase rate, large, slow growing kids, long life

Survivorship Curve

Graph showing the number of survivors in different age groups for a particular species.

primary succession

succession that occurs on surfaces where no soil exists

secondary succession

type of succession that occurs in an area that was only partially destroyed by disturbances

pioneer species

First species to populate an area during primary succession

climax community

a stable community that no longer goes through major ecological changes

Natural disturbances to succession

Fire, hurricanes, other natural disasters

Age structure

the portion of a population at each age level

Factors which determine climate

Average temp and rain

El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

The periodic changes in winds and ocean currents, causing cooler and wetter conditions in the southeastern United States and unusually dry weather in southern Africa and Southeast Asia.

La Nina

Opposite of el nino, A cooling of the ocean surface off the western coast of South America, occurring periodically every 4 to 12 years and affecting Pacific and other weather patterns.

Trade Winds

Winds that blow east to west around the equator

Desert

- evaporation exceeds percipetation
- sparse vegetation, poor soil
- HUMAN IMPACT: Salnization (build-up of salt due to increased evaporation), Aquifer Depletion (causes deserts to sink)

Temperate Grassland

- tall, lush grass and high nutrient soil
- large seasonal temp differences

Grassland

Enough rain for grass, but erratic droughts/fires prevent trees

Tropical Grassland

- higher temps, low/mod rain
- prolonged dry season
- Savannahs: warm all year, alternating wet/dry seasons

Polar Grassland/Arctic Tundra

- cold temperatures, dry
- covered in PERMAFROST (frozen layer of soil, CO2 built up inside)

Chaparral

- Temperate shrubland
- costal areas
- moderate rain, hot and dry summers

Tropical Rain Forest

- warm temp, humidity, heavy rainfall
- most diverse terrestrial biome
- poor soil
- highly stratified, plants grow in layers

Tropical deciduous forest

- warm year round, most rain during monsoon season

Temperate Rainforest

- moderate temp, frequent rain

temperate deciduous forest

- moderate temps w/ strong seasonal changes
- lots of rain
- trees lose leaves in winter
- high nutrient soils
This is our area!

Boreal Forest

- Dry cold climate
- poor soil
- corniferous trees

Oceanic Zones

- epipelagic (photic zone)
- mesopelagic
- bathypelagic
- abyssal pelagic (ocean basins)
- hadalpelagic (deep trenches)

Lake Zones

- littoral (shallow area near shore)
- limnetic (open sunlit water)
- profundal (too dark for photosynthesis)
- benthic (bottom of lake)

Watershed/Drainage Basin

land area that delivers runoff, sediment, and dissolved substances to a stream

River System

- source (headwaters, cold, nutrient rich)
- transition (streams merge, wider/deeper, warmer slower water)
- flood plain (supports most biodiv)

Wetlands

- marshes/swamps/bogs
- water over land
- filter/dilute water pollution
- reduce flooding

Estuaries

- partially enclosed area of costal water
- seawater mixes w/ freshwater
- constant water flow from tides, nutrient rich

Coral Reefs

- Oldest, most productive ecosystems in the world
- Most diverse water ecosystem

ICUN

International Union for Conservation of Nature, leading authority for species conservation. Created the RED LIST of threatend species

CITES

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, 1975, signed by 183 countries, protects almost 40k species that cannot be traded

Endangered Species Act

(1973) identifies threatened and endangered species in the U.S., and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations

Invasive species

species that have migrated to places where they are not native. Often generalist, r selected.
ex: zebra mussel (chesapeake bay, great lakes, introduced to filter water, but overstepped, killing algea and crayfish), burmese python (everglades)

Selective Cutting (tree harvesting)

mature trees are cut into indv/small groups, creating small gaps

Clear Cutting (tree harvesting)

remove all trees in single cut for $$$

Sustainable Fishing

- reduce bycatch
- fish quotas/regulations
- aquaculture
- reduce invasive species

Bycatch

The unintentional catch of nontarget species while fishing

Aquaculture

The cultivation of seafood under controlled conditions

Biomagnification

accumulation of pollutants at successive levels of the food chain

Bioaccumulation

An increased concentration of a chemical within an organism over time

Soil Triangle

a graphic explanation of the proportions of sand, silt, and clay in soil

Soil Horizons

- O horizon (surface litter)
- A horizon (topsoil)
- B horizon (subsoil)
- C Horizon (parent material)

Soil Conservation Methods

- No Till Farming (special planter injects seeds/fertilizers in unplowed soil)
- Strip/Intercropping (alternating crop rows with two crops)
-Agroforestry (alternating rows of crops with trees/shrubs)