Learning and Motivation – Comprehensive Vocabulary Review

A set of 200 vocabulary flashcards summarizing key terms and definitions from the lecture on learning and motivation.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including cognition, affect, and behavior.

Learning

A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

Motivation

A set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behavior toward a goal.

Forgetting

The deterioration in performance of learned behavior following a retention interval; not always permanent.

Retention Interval

A period during which practice of a behavior does not occur.

Encoding Failure

The situation in which information never enters long-term memory, so it cannot be forgotten because it was never learned.

Retrieval Failure

Information is stored but cannot be accessed when needed.

John McGeoch’s View on Forgetting

Argued that time alone does not cause forgetting; specific experiences do.

Degree of Learning

The extent to which material is learned; better learning leads to slower forgetting.

Overlearning

Continuing practice beyond initial mastery, producing especially durable memory.

Prior Learning

Existing knowledge that can aid retention or cause proactive interference.

Proactive Interference

Earlier learned material disrupts the recall of material learned later.

Subsequent Learning

New learning after original learning; may cause retroactive interference.

Retroactive Interference

Later learning disrupts recall of previously learned material.

Change in Context

When cues present during learning are absent in recall, leading to cue-dependent forgetting.

Cue-Dependent Forgetting

Failure to recall information due to missing environmental or internal cues present at encoding.

Measuring Forgetting

General term for assessing memory loss via recall, recognition, relearning, etc.

Free Recall

Remembering information without any cues.

Prompted Recall

Providing hints or cues to aid memory retrieval.

Relearning (Savings Method)

Measuring how much faster material is mastered a second time.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information among options.

Delayed Matching to Sample

Remembering a stimulus after a delay before choosing the matching item.

Extinction Method (Memory)

Assessing forgetting by measuring how quickly a learned response extinguishes.

Gradient Degradation

Loss of precision in a stimulus-response gradient as forgetting occurs.

Encoding

The process of acquiring information and transforming it into memory.

Control Processes

Deliberate strategies (e.g., rehearsal, coding, imaging) that influence memory storage.

Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it active in short-term memory or transfer it to long-term memory.

Rote Learning

Learning through mechanical repetition rather than understanding.

Coding (Semantic)

Adding meaning to information to enhance memory.

Imaging

Creating mental pictures to aid memory retention.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Thinking about the meaning of information to transfer it to long-term memory.

Levels of Processing Theory

Craik & Lockhart’s idea that memory depends on depth of processing at encoding.

Shallow Processing

Superficial analysis (e.g., physical features) leading to poor retention.

Deep Processing

Semantic, meaningful analysis leading to stronger memory.

Imagery (Encoding Aid)

Using visual images to enhance memory, especially with concrete nouns.

Generation Effect

Information is better remembered when self-produced rather than passively read.

Organization of Information

Structuring material into meaningful frameworks to aid encoding and retrieval.

Testing Effect

Taking tests strengthens memory more than additional studying.

Self-Reference Effect

Tendency to remember information better when it relates to oneself.

Strategies for Learning to Remember

Practical tactics such as overlearning, feedback, self-testing, mnemonics, and context cues.

Productivity Pyramid

Smith’s framework of governing values, long-range goals, and daily tasks for goal setting.

Governing Values

Fundamental reasons that give meaning to goals and guide behavior.

Long-Ranged Goals

Major outcomes an individual aspires to achieve over extended periods.

Intermediate Goals

Mid-range objectives that bridge long-range goals and daily tasks.

Daily Tasks

Immediate activities aligned with intermediate and long-range goals.

Properties of Goals

Characteristics such as specificity, proximity, and difficulty that enhance motivation.

Goal Specificity

Clarity in defining what is to be accomplished, aiding effort and self-efficacy.

Goal Proximity

How near one is to attaining a goal; closer goals heighten motivation.

Goal Difficulty

Extent of challenge a goal presents, influencing effort required.

SMART Goals

Goals that are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound.

Goal Implementation Plan

Detailed outline of steps, resources, and timelines for achieving a goal.

Evaluating Progress

Reflecting on outcomes, strategies, and difficulties to adjust plans.

Role of Emotions in Academics

Positive emotions boost learning and achievement; negative emotions hinder them.

Irrational Beliefs

Faulty thoughts that generate negative emotions and can impede performance.

Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)

Ellis’s method for replacing irrational ideas with realistic statements.

Filtering

Noticing only negative aspects of events, ignoring positives.

Polarized Thinking

Viewing situations in all-or-nothing terms.

Overgeneralization

Drawing broad negative conclusions from limited evidence.

Mind Reading

Assuming you know what others think, often negatively.

Catastrophizing

Expecting or visualizing disaster in situations.

Magnifying

Exaggerating the severity of a problem.

Personalization

Believing events are directed at oneself; engaging in social comparison.

"Shoulds"

Rigid rules about how one or others must behave (“musterbation”).

Self-Talk

Internal dialogue; can be modified from negative to positive to influence emotion.

Relaxation Techniques

Physical or mental activities that reduce stress and regulate emotions.

Physical Relaxation

Body-focused methods such as deep breathing, exercise, or progressive muscle relaxation.

Mental Relaxation

Mind-focused methods like meditation, music, humor, or self-hypnosis.

Physical Characteristics Limit

Biological constraints that restrict what can be learned (e.g., speech in chimpanzees).

Nonheritability of Learned Behaviors

Learned behaviors die with the individual and are not genetically transmitted.

Heredity and Learning Ability

Genetic factors influence how easily individuals learn, shown by strain differences.

Neurological Damage

Impairment to nervous system that limits learning capacity.

Neurotoxins

Substances (e.g., lead, pesticides) that damage neural tissue and hinder learning.

Head Injury

Trauma to the brain that can impair learning.

Malnutrition

Nutrient deficiency, especially in early life, that hampers brain development.

Critical Period

Optimal developmental window for certain types of learning.

Imprinting

Early learning in which young animals attach to the first moving object seen.

Preparedness

Species-specific predisposition to learn certain associations more easily.

Instinctive Drift

Tendency for learned behavior to revert to innate patterns.

Autoshaping

Automatic shaping of behavior without explicit reinforcement.

Contra-Prepared Behavior

Action that is biologically difficult for a species to learn.

Academic Self-Regulation

Strategies students use to control motivation, learning methods, time, and environment.

Hope Theory

Belief that individuals can achieve goals through their own actions, fostering well-being.

Self-Efficacy

Confidence in one’s ability to succeed in specific tasks.

Self-Esteem

Overall evaluation of one’s worth or value.

Possible Self

Cognitive image of what one might become in the future.

Attribution

Explanation for causes of behaviors or events.

Locus of Causality

Whether an attribution is internal or external to the person.

Stability Dimension

Whether an attribution is stable (unchanging) or unstable over time.

Self-Control

Ability to delay immediate gratification for long-term goals.

Eustress

Positive, motivating type of stress that enhances performance.

Distress

Negative, harmful stress that impairs performance and health.

Intrinsic Motivation

Drive arising from internal factors such as interest or enjoyment.

Extrinsic Motivation

Drive based on external rewards or punishments.

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate over genetic versus environmental influences on behavior.

Schema

Piaget’s mental framework for organizing and interpreting information.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adjusting schemas or creating new ones to fit new information.

Preoperational Stage

Piagetian period (2-7 yrs) marked by symbolic thought and egocentrism.

Centration

Focusing on one aspect of a situation while neglecting others.

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing the world from perspectives other than one’s own.