Revel Pearson Mastering the World of Psychology Chapter 6

information-processing theory

This approach makes use of modern computer science and related fields to provide models that help psychologists understand the processes involved in memory.

hardware

brain structures that are involved in memory

software

learned memory strategies

encoding

transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory

storage

involves keeping or maintaining information in memory

retrieval

occurs when information stored in memory is brought to mind

memory

is a cognitive process that includes encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

Their model characterizes memory as three different, interacting memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

sensory memory

holds information for a period ranging from a fraction of a second to 2 seconds

George Sperling

conducted a classic experiment of sensory memory in which he briefly flashed 12 letters to participants

children

small proportion of individuals who have an exceptional ability to extend the amount of time that an image is present in sensory memory

eidetic imagery

the memory phenomenon that comes closest to the popular notion of a "photographic memory"

short-term memory

our ability to pay attention allows us to grab on to some sensory information and send it to the next stage of processing

sound

short term memory usually codes information according to:

seven (plus or minus two) different items or bits of information at one time

how much capacity does short-term memory have?

displacement

each new incoming item pushes out an existing item, which is then forgotten

chunking

organizing or grouping separate bits of information into larger units, or chunks

chunk

an easily identifiable unit, such as a syllable, a word, an acronym, or a number

rehearsal

repeating them over and over to yourself

working memory

the memory substance that we use when we try to understand information, remember it, or use it to solve a problem or communicate with someone

prefrontal cortex

the site that is activated when we are using our working memories

memory strategies

involves manipulating information in ways that make it easier to remember

maintenance rehearsal

repeat information over and over again until we can recall it easily

elaborative rehearsal

involves relating new information to something you already know

levels of processing model

This model proposed that maintenance rehearsal involves "shallow" processing whereas elaborative rehearsal involves "deep" processing

shallow processing

encoding based on superficial features of information, such as the sound of a word

deep processing

encoding based on the meaning of information

visually

Is the word in capital letters?

acoustically

Does the word rhyme with another particular word?

semantically

Does the word make sense when used in a particular sentence?

automacity

the ability to do a task without paying attention to it

Kim Peek

was capable of rapidly carrying out complex mental calculations and could memorize hundreds of pages of text

long term memory

a person's vast storehouse of permanent or relatively permanent memories

declarative memory

stores facts, information, and personal life events that can be brought to mind verbally or in the form of images and then declared or stated

episodic memory

the type of declarative memory that records events as they have been subjectively experienced

episodic memory

"I remember being in Florida on my vacation last spring, lying on the sand, soaking up some rays, and listening to the sound of the waves rushing to the shore."

semantic memory

memory for general knowledge, or objective facts and information

semantic memory

when a person recalls that Florida is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east and the Gulf of Mexico on the west, what type of memory is used?

Endel Tulving

points out that the two types of declarative memory do not function independently

nondeclarative memory

the subsystem within long-term memory that stores procedures, motor skills, habits, and simple classically conditioned responses

motor skills, classically conditioned responses

examples of nondeclarative memory

episodic memory, semantic memory

examples of declarative memory

overlearning

practicing or studying material beyond the point where it can be repeated once without error

massed practice

cramming for examinations

spaced practice

a strategy that breaks studying into several brief sessions with rest periods in between

repeated testing

the most powerful strategy of all for remembering information you read in textbooks and other such sources

retrieval

the process of bringing information that has been encoded and stored to mind

recall

a person must produce required information simply by searching memory

retrieval cue

any stimulus or bit of information that aids in retrieving a particular memory

recognition

A person simply recognizes something as familiar—a face, a name, a taste, a melody

relearning method

retention is expressed as the percentage of time saved when material is relearned relative to the time required to learn the material originally

savings score

The percentage of time saved

serial position effect

the finding that, for information learned in a sequence, recall is better for items at the beginning and the end than for items in the middle of the sequence

primacy effect

the tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more readily than the middle items

recency effect

the tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle

context effect

a person learns information are encoded along with the information and become part of the memory

Godden and Baddeley

conducted one of the early studies of context and memory with members of a university diving club

state-dependent memory effect

The emotional state that a person was in when she formed a memory affects her ability to recall it

everyday memory

the process of remembering as it exists in real life rather than psychologists' laboratories

reconstruction

the act of bringing stored information to mind involves piecing together a plausible representation of an object or event based on fragmentary information

schemas

based on situational averages

source memory

a recollection of the circumstances in which you formed a memory

source monitoring

the practice of intentionally keeping track of the sources of incoming information

flashbulb memory

Memories for shocking, emotion-provoking events that include information about the source from which the information was acquired

autobiographical memories

recollections that a person includes in an account of his or her own life

positive bias

the tendency for pleasant autobiographical memories to be more easily recalled than unpleasant ones and memories of unpleasant events to become more emotionally positive over time

expertise

possess an extensive amount of relevant background knowledge

forgetting

the inability to bring to mind information that was previously remembered

Hermann Ebbinghaus

conducted the first experimental studies on learning and memory

mastery

repeating something until they can recall it twice without error

curve of forgetting

consists of savings scores at various time intervals after the original learning

encoding failure

a cause of forgetting that occurs when information was never put into long term memory

decay theory

the oldest theory of forgetting, which holds that memories, if not used, fade with time and ultimately disappear altogether

interference

A cause of forgetting that occurs because information or associations stored either before or after a given memory hinder the ability to remember it.

stroop test

requires research participants to memorize color words that are shown in colored type

retroactive interference

happens when new learning interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information

proactive interference

occurs when information or experiences already stored in long-term memory hinder the ability to remember newer information

consolidation

is the physiological process by which encoded information is stored in memory

consolidation failure

Any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a long-term memory from forming.

motivated forgetting

forgetting through suppression or repression in an effort to protect oneself from material that is painful, frightening, or otherwise unpleasant.

suppression

a person makes a conscious, active attempt to put a painful, disturbing, anxiety- or guilt-provoking memory out of mind, but the person is still aware that the painful event occurred

repression

unpleasant memories are literally removed from consciousness, and the person is no longer aware that the unpleasant event ever occurred

prospective forgetting

not remembering to carry out some intended action

retrieval failure

not remembering something someone

tip-of-the-fingers (TOF) phenomenon

occurs in individuals who use sign language to communicate

hippocampal region

a part of the limbic system, which includes the hippocampus itself and the underlying cortical areas, involved in the formation of semantic memories

Eric Kandel and his colleagues

traced the effects of learning and memory in the sea snail Aplysia

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in the efficiency of neural transmission at the synapses that lasts for hours or longer

cortisol

stress hormone released by the adrenal glands when encountering a stressor

estrogen

appears to improve working memory efficiency

amnesia

a partial or complete loss of memory due to loss of consciousness, brain damage, or some psychological cause

anterograde amnesia

inability to store new information

retrograde amnesia

can form new memories, but they cannot remember the past

dementias

a collection of​ neurological disorders in which degenerative processes in the brain diminish people's ability to remember and process information

cerebral arteriosclerosis

hardening of the arteries in the brain

Alzheimer's disease

there is a progressive deterioration of intellect and personality that results from widespread degeneration of brain cells

deep brain stimulation

a treatment in which a device implanted in the brain delivers electrical impulses to the parts of the brain that are critical to memory

children and teens

who typically experiences memory gaps?

misinformation effect

erroneous recollections of the actual event