psychology 2910 - lecture 2 (the nature of scientific knowledge)

What is the supernatural explanation for behaviour?

Attribute behaviour to non-physical forces, such as spirits and deities

Animism

Natural phenomena are alive and influence behaviour (i.e. possessing an eagle's feather confers some properties to owner)

Mythology and Religion

Also has idea that non-physical forces determine what people do; built on different assumptions than science

Astrology

Human behaviour determined by activity of celestial bodies

Empiricism

The only sound basis for knowing is to make observations (and sensory experience)

Positivism

The only sound basis for knowing is preferably only sense perceptions (and verifiable via the scientific method)

What did experimental psychology focus on in the mid-1800s?

Experimental observation about vision sensation, the beginnings of psychophysics (thresholds of detection)

Intuition

A thing that one knows or considers likely from instinctive feeling rather than conscious reasoning; absence of conscious reasoning

What is the major problem with intuition?

Conclusion drawn without sufficient evidence

- Raisins are safe to eat

- Therefore, likely that other animals can also eat raisins

- But raisins are toxic for dogs

How can we acquire knowledge through authority?

Believing what "authority" figures tell you

What is the major problem with authority?

Is the "authority" really an "authority"?

- Someone can be an authority on developmental psychology, but not economics, politics or social policy

Scientific Skepticism

- Uses the scientific method (gathering data to formulate and test naturalistic explanations for natural phenomena)

- Treats claims as fact only when they are supported strongly enough to justify temporary agreement, while recognizing that all scientific facts are provisional and subject to challenge

Determinism

The universe is orderly; what held yesterday will hold today

Cause and effect; events have meaningful, systematic causes

Covariation of Cause and Effect

When cause is present, effect is present; when cause is absent, effect is absent

Temporal Precedence

Cause precedes effect

Elimination of Alternative Explanations

Nothing other than stated causal variable could be responsible

What are the four goals of scientific psychology?

1. Describe behaviour

2. Predict behaviour

3. Determine cause of behaviour

4. Explain behaviour

Basic Research

Answer fundamental questions

- What causes forgetting?

Applied Research

Address practical problems (i.e. clinical psychology)

- How can participation rates in recycling be increased?

Replication

Describe research in sufficient detail that someone else can replicate the study and the results

Testability/Falsifiability

Not interested in ideas that cannot be tested or falsified (e.g., most of Freudian theory)

Peer Review

Try to ensure studies with flaws are not published; not perfect, but better than any proposed system

What is the adversarial process of science?

Ideas battle with observations and data the tools of combat. The scientific debate is very different than what happens in a court of law, but just as in the law, it's crucial that every idea receive the most vigorous possible advocacy, just in case it might be right

What are the characteristics of pseudoscience?

- Hypotheses are not falsifiable

- Methodology is not scientific

- Evidence is anecdotal or appeals to authority

- Lack of citations to peer-reviewed articles

- Not published in peer-reviewed journal

- Claims not revised to account for new data

- Ignores conflicting evidence

How are biorhythms pseudoscience?

Human behaviour is governed by physical, emotional, and intellectual cycles lasting 23, 28, and 33 days, respectively

How is homeopathy pseudoscience?

A substance that causes the symptoms of a disease in healthy people cures similar symptoms in sick people

How is phrenology pseudioscience?

Personality traits predicted by bumps on the skull

How are scientific papers critically evaluated?

1. Evaluate source of data (reputable peer-reviewed journal? Any potential conflicts of interest? Source of funding?)

2. Evaluate methods (was study conducted appropriately?)

3. Evaluate analyses (are statistical analyses correct?)

4. Evaluate conclusions (do conclusions follow from the analyses?)

What are the characteristics of a reputable peer-reviewed journal?

- APA provides info on rejection rates

- Takes 2-3 months review

- Often associated with scholarly/professional society, well-known university, well-known major publisher

- Articles are cited in top journals (i.e. APA journals)