Enlightenment

Agricultural Revolution

A series of developments in the 18th century that increased crop production and overall improved agriculture.

Crop rotation

The introduction of nitrogen-rich crops into the crop rotation in order to replenish the soil after the depletion of other crops.

Jethro Tull

Invented the seed drill and many other advancements towards the improvement and efficiency of agriculture.

Potato and maize

Brought over from the Americas, very easy to store over the winter, and improved European diets.

Enclosure Movement

Legally enclosed agricultural lands in England, forced many small farmers out of agriculture and into different industries.

Mercantilism

A government controlled economy.

Global economy

Increased integration of economy between countries, better global economic connection.

Slave trade and plantation economy

The slave trade between the Americas and Europe led to the development of large plantations which slaves were forced to work.

Growth of port cities

Port cities became increasingly necessary as transportation between countries for trade increased.

High culture

The literary and artistic world of the educated and wealthy ruling class.

Popular culture

The written and unwritten lore of the masses, which is passed down orally.

Spectator

A magazine written by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele to bring philosophy into everyday education.

The Female Spectator

A magazine created by Eliza Haywood with articles written by females.

Realschule

A school created in Germany which aimed to provide a broader education in business for young boys.

Carnival

Celebrating in the days leading up to Lent, viewed as a time of indulgence.

Volkschulen

State-supported primary schools in the Austrian Empire.

18th century medicine

Increase and development of surgery for the upper-class; hospitals were in awful condition.

Taverns and alcohol

Taverns were gathering places for men; alcohol consumption patterns varied between classes.

Population growth

Decline in death rate, improved nutrition, and increase in marriage.

Ideas about children

In the 18th century, upper class began to view childhood as crucial to human development.

European marriage and birth rate patterns

Europeans began marrying later in life and had fewer children.

Peasant life

Peasants relied on household manufacturing; faced problems with poor harvests.

Tithes

10% of earnings given to the church and clergy.

Peasant obligations to nobles

Peasants relied on the nobles due to the enclosure act.

Peasants in Eastern Europe

Increase in serfdom was noted.

Village life

Changed by the enclosure acts; communal gardens and farmlands diminished.

Immanuel Kant

Defined the Enlightenment as a specific era in time.

Enlightenment

Man’s leaving his self-caused immaturity, utilizing intelligence without another's guidance.

Bernard de Fontenelle

Secretary of the French Royal Academy; wrote 'Plurality of Worlds'.

Skepticism

Distrust of religion portrayed as an enemy of scientific progress.

Pierre Bayle

Protestant critic of tradition; supported religious tolerance.

Cook’s Travels

Documented travels to Tahiti, New Zealand, and Australia; introduced European people to different cultures.

Cultural Relativism

Understanding of different cultures without judgement of superiority or inferiority.

Isaac Newton

Developed the Newtonian World Model and the scientific method.

Locke’s tabula rasa

The concept that individuals are born as a 'blank slate'.

Thomas Hobbes

English political thinker known for his writings on human nature and governance.

Leviathan

A work by Thomas Hobbes discussing the need for a powerful governing authority.

John Locke

English political thinker known for his ideas on natural rights and government.

Two Treatises of Government

A work by John Locke discussing rights to life, liberty, and property.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

French philosopher known for ideas on societal governance.

The Social Contract

A concept by Rousseau arguing governance by the general will of the public.

Romanticism

An artistic movement emphasizing emotion and individualism.

Emilie

A work by Rousseau discussing the education of the 'natural man.'

Philosophes

Literary figures, journalists, and social reformers of the Enlightenment.

Cosmopolitan

Refers to modern, urban, and trendy elements.

Baron de Montesquieu

Wrote 'Persian Letters' and 'The Spirit of the Laws' which focused on government structure.

Separation of Powers

Division of government into branches to provide stability.

Voltaire

A playwright and philosopher who advocated for freedom of press and religious tolerance.

Deism

Belief that God created the world but is not actively involved in it.

Denis Diderot

Influential philosopher best known for writing the 'Encyclopedia'.

Encyclopedia

An influential work by Diderot introducing a new way of thinking.

David Hume

Scottish philosopher who contributed to social sciences and human behavior.

Baron Paul d’Holbach

German aristocrat and atheist known for his deterministic views.

Marie-Jean de Condorcet

Proposed a progression of human history towards perfection.

Church power in European states

The church was nationalized and often controlled by individual states.

Dissolution of the Jesuits

The Jesuits were dissolved due to political influence.

Religious toleration

Supported by philosophes but not widely accepted by rulers.

Pogroms

Allowed for the massacre of Jewish communities.

Tolerance of Jews

Most rulers did not accept Jews, except for Joseph II.

Catholic worship

Characterized by prayers to saints and pilgrimages.

Pietism

A response for deeper personal devotion to God.

John Wesley

Anglican minister who preached to the lower class and spread the gospel.

Methodism

Began as a sect of the Anglican Church focused on good works.

Mary Astell

Advocated for women's education and equal marriage roles.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Originator of modern feminism; fought for equality in rights.

Feminism

The fight for equality for women.

Salons

Elegant gathering places for philosophical discussions among the wealthy.

Marie-Therese de Geoffrin

A hostess who supported philosophical discussions among encyclopedists.

Marquise de Deffand

Hosted key Enlightenment figures including Montesquieu and Voltaire.

Rococo

Art style emphasizing grace and gentleness.

Antoine Watteau

Leading figure of Rococo art, known for depicting aristocratic life.

Balthasar Neumann

Architect known for Rococo designs in churches and palaces.

Neoclassicism

Art movement capturing the simplicity and dignity of classical styles.

Jacques-Louis David

Leader of neoclassicism, known for moral and patriotic themes.

Johann Sebastian Bach

Composer specializing in worship music during the Baroque period.

George Frederick Handel

Known for secular and worship music during the Baroque period.

Franz Joseph Haydn

Composer influenced by English freedoms during the Classical period.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Child prodigy and prolific composer of the Classical era.

Samuel Richardson

Author of 'Pamela,' one of the first novels in English literature.

Henry Fielding

Wrote about lower-class survival through wit; author of 'The History of Tom Jones.'

Edward Gibbon

Historian known for 'Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'.

Natural laws

Laws that inherently drive human behavior and the world.

Natural rights

Inalterable privileges that should not be denied to anyone.

Enlightened absolutism

Monarchs ruling with Enlightenment principles guided by philosophers.

Cardinal Fleury and Louis XV

Louis XV’s prime minister who increased trade before losing control.

The Hanoverians (Georges)

Early rulers dependent on their prime ministers.

Robert Walpole

Prime minister known for peaceful foreign policy under George I.

William Pitt the Elder

Prime minister who acquired Canada and India.

William Pitt the Younger

Gained popular support during a time of criticism.

Orangists and Patriots

Conflict between Dutch burghers seeking power reduction.

Frederick William I

Prussian ruler who developed a rigid bureaucratic structure.

Frederick II (the Great)

Enlightened monarch who enacted reforms for welfare.

Maria Theresa

Austrian ruler who centralized the monarchy and reformed taxation.

Joseph II

Radical enlightener who promoted public education and equality.

Catherine the Great

Russian queen who implemented Enlightenment reforms.

Charter of the Nobility

Provided exemptions for nobility and formed corporate groups.

Pugachev’s rebellion

Led by Emelyan Pugachev, a peasant revolt against landowners.

Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji

Protected the Greek Orthodox Church.

Partitions of Poland

Division of Poland by Russia, Prussia, and Austria.

Philip V

Established a French-style government in Spain.