Field Methods - Lesson 2 (copy)

Ethics

Is the study of proper action.

Research Ethics

Concerns the responsibility of a researchers to be honest and respectful to all individuals who are affected by their research or their reports of the studies' results.

1. What measurement techniques may be used for certain individuals and certain behaviors;

2. How researchers select individuals to participate in studies;

3. Which research strategies may be used with certain populations and behaviors;

4. Which research designs may be used with certain population and behaviors;

5. How studies may be carried out with individuals;

6. How data are analyzed; and

7. How results are reported

In research, ethical issues must be considered at each step in the research process. Ethical principles dictates:

1. Responsibility to ensure the welfare and dignity of the individuals, both human and non-human, who participate in their research studies; and

2. Responsibility to ensure that public reports of their research are accurate and honest.

The Basic Categories of Ethical Responsibility

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

reviews research involving human participants

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

reviews research with nonhuman subject

Before the end of World War II

researchers followed their own individual ethical standards when conducting experiments on human participants. There was no formal system in place to protect participants, and it was assumed that researchers’ personal moral judgments would be sufficient to prevent harm. However, this assumption proved faulty, as not all researchers prioritized the ethical treatment of human subjects, leading to instances of severe mistreatment.

Nazi Experiments During World War II

The atrocities committed in Nazi concentration camps revealed the depths of unethical research practices. Prisoners were subjected to horrific medical experiments without consent, such as repeated bone breaking to study healing limits, and exposure to extreme high altitudes and freezing conditions to observe survival times. These cruel experiments, conducted on unwilling individuals, served as a major catalyst for the establishment of formal ethical guidelines in research.

In 1947

following the uncovering of Nazi war crimes, many responsible for these brutal experiments were tried at the Nuremberg Trials. These trials resulted in the development of the Nuremberg Code, a set of 10 ethical guidelines aimed at ensuring the humane treatment of human research participants. This code became the foundation for modern ethical standards, emphasizing informed consent and the protection of participants from harm in both medical and psychological research.

Nuremberg Code

a set of 10 ethical guidelines aimed at ensuring the humane treatment of human research participants

Nuremberg Code

became the foundation for modern ethical standards, emphasizing informed consent and the protection of participants from harm in both medical and psychological research.

1963

One notable case came to light when it was revealed that patients had unknowingly been injected with live cancer cells, violating their right to informed consent and subjecting them to unnecessary risk

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

was exposed in 1972, where nearly 400 African American men were deliberately left untreated for syphilis, even after penicillin was identified as an effective cure.

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

This study had begun in 1932 as a short-term investigation into untreated syphilis, but it continued for 40 years so that researchers could observe the final stages of the disease.

Cancer Cell Injection (1963)

Patients were injected with live cancer cells without their knowledge.

Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1972)

Nearly 400 men were left untreated for syphilis for 40 years, despite a cure being available.

Milgram Obedience Study (1963)

In this experiment, participants were instructed to administer increasingly intense electric shocks to another person whenever they made an error during a learning task. While no actual shocks were given, the participants believed they were inflicting real pain, and the emotional toll was significant.

Milgram Obedience Study (1963)

Participants suffered shame and embarrassment for having followed orders to inflict what they believed was real harm on another individual. Though no physical harm occurred, the study raised serious questions about the emotional and psychological well-being of participants in behavioral research, as well as the extent to which people could be manipulated into unethical behavior.

Building upon the principles of the Nuremberg Code, the World Medical Association adopted the Declaration of Helsinki in 1964

This international set of ethical guidelines specifically addressed medical research involving human participants, and it remains a key document guiding ethical conduct in research. These guidelines aimed to provide further clarity and global uniformity on the treatment of research subjects.

1974 Congress passed the National Research Act

The act mandated regulations for the protection of human participants and had the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare create the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research.

In 1979

National Commission published The Belmont Report: Ethical Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research

1. The principle of respect for persons requires that individuals should consent to participate in studies and those who cannot give their consent, such as children, people with diminished abilities, and prisoners, need to be protected;

2. The principle of beneficence requires that the researcher not harm the participants, minimize risks, and maximize possible benefits; and

3. The principle of justice requires fairness in procedures for selecting participants.

The Belmont Report: Ethical Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research Three Basic Principles:

10 Ethical Standard (APA ethics code)

No Harm (Sections 3.04 and 8.08)

Privacy and Confidentiality (Sections 4.01-4.05)

Institutional Approval (Section 8.01)

Competence (Sections 2.01 and 2.05)

Record Keeping (Sections 6.01-6.02)

Informed Consent to Research (Sections 3.10 and 8.02-8.04)

Dispensing with Informed Consent (Section 8.05)

Offering Inducements for Research Participation (Section 8.06)

Deception in Research (Section 8.07)

Debriefing (Section 8.08)

No Harm (Sections 3.04 and 8.08)

Psychologists take reasonable steps to avoid harming their research participants, and to minimize harm where it is foreseeable and unavoidable.

No Harm (Sections 3.04 and 8.08)

When psychologists become aware that research procedures have harmed a participant, they take reasonable steps to minimize the harm.

Privacy and Confidentiality (Sections 4.01-4.05)

Psychologists have a primary obligation and take reasonable precautions to protect confidential information.

Privacy and Confidentiality (Sections 4.01-4.05)

Psychologists discuss with persons the relevant limits of confidentiality.

Privacy and Confidentiality (Sections 4.01-4.05)

Psychologists discuss confidential information only for appropriate scientific or professional purposes, and only with persons clearly concerned with such matters.

Privacy and Confidentiality (Sections 4.01-4.05)

Psychologists may disclose confidential information with the appropriate consent of the individual or another legally authorized person on behalf of the participant, unless prohibited by law.

Confidentiality

is the practice of keeping strictly secret and private information or measurements obtained from an individual during a research study

Anonymity

is the practice of ensuring that an individual's name is not direclty associated with the information or measurements obtained from that individual.

1. No names or other identification appear on data records.

2. Researchers use a coding system to keep track of which participant names go with which sets of data.

Two strategies of Anonymity

Institutional Approval (Section 8.01)

When institutional approval is required, psychologists provide accurate information about their research proposals and obtain approval prior to conducting the research. They conduct research in accordance with the approved research protocol.

Competence (Sections 2.01 and 2.05)

Psychologists conduct research with populations and in areas only within the boundaries of their competence.

Competence (Sections 2.01 and 2.05)

Psychologists planning to conduct research involving populations, area, techniques, or technologies new to them undertake relevant education, training, supervised experience, consultation, or study.

Competence (Sections 2.01 and 2.05)

Psychologists who delegate work to research assistants take reasonable steps to authorize only responsibilities that such persons can be expected to perform competently on the basis of their education, training, or experience, and see that such persons perform theses services competently.

Record Keeping (Sections 6.01-6.02)

Psychologists create, and to the extent the records are under their control, maintain, disseminate, store, retain, and dispose of records and data relating to their scientific work in order to allow for replication of research design and analyses and meet institutional requirements.

Informed Consent to Research (Sections 3.10 and 8.02-8.04)

When psychologists conduct research, they obtain informed consent of the individual using language that is reasonably understandable to that person except when conducting such activities without consent.

(1) provide an appropriate explanation,

(2) seek the individual's assent,

(3) consider such persons' preferences and best interests, and

(4) obtain appropriate permission from a legally authorized person, if such substitute consent is permitted or required by law.

For persons who are legally incapable of giving informed consent, psychologists nevertheless

a) the purpose of the research, expected duration, and procedures.

b) their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once participation has begun.

c) the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing

d) reasonable foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate (such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects).

e) any prospective research benefits.

f) limits of confidentiality.

g) incentives for participation.

h) who to contact for questions about the research and research participants' rights

When obtaining informed consent, psychologists inform participants about

(1) the research consists solely of naturalistic observations in public places, and it is not anticipated that the recording will be used in a manner that could cause personal identification or harm; or

(2) the research design includes deception, and consent for the use of the recording is obtained during the debriefing (see also Standard 8.07, Deception in Research).

Psychologists obtain informed consent from research participants prior to recording their voices or images for data collection unless

Informed Consent to Research (Sections 3.10 and 8.02-8.04)

When psychologists conduct research with students or subordinates as participants, psychologists take steps to protect the prospective participants from adverse consequences of declining or withdrawing from participation.

When research participation is a course requirement or an opportunity for extra credit, the prospective participant is given the choice of equitable alternative activities

Dispensing with Informed Consent (Section 8.05)

Psychologists may dispense with informed consent only

(1) where research would not reasonably be assumed to create distress or harm

(2) where otherwise permitted by law or federal or institutional regulations.

a. the study of normal educational practices, curricula; or classroom management methods conducted in educational settings.

b. only anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic observations, or archival research for which disclosure of responses would not place participants at risk of criminal or civil liability or damage their reputation, and confidentiality is protected.

c. the study of factors related to job or organization effectiveness conducted in organizational settings for which there is no risk to participants' employ-ability, and confidentiality is protected.

Psychologists may dispense with informed consent only where research would not reasonably be assumed to create distress or harm, and involves:

Offering Inducements for Research Participation (Section 8.06)

Psychologists make reasonable efforts to avoid offering excessive or inappropriate financial or other inducements for research participation when such inducements are likely to coerce participation.

deception

occurs when a researcher purposefully withholds information or misleads participants with regard to information about a study.

Passive deception (or Omission)

Active deception (or Commission)

Two forms of deception:

Passive deception (or Omission)

is the withholding or omitting of information; the researcher intentionally does not tell participants some information about the study

Active deception (or Commission)

is the presenting of misinformation about the study to participants. The most common form of active deception is misleading participants about the specific purpose of the study.

1. The deception must be justified in terms of some significant benefit that outweighs the risk to the participants. The researcher must consider all alternatives to deception and must justify the rejection of any alternative procedures.

2. The researcher cannot conceal from the prospective participants information about research that is expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress.

3. The researcher must debrief the participants by providing a complete explanation as soon as possible after participation is completed

APA GUIDELINES identify three specific areas of responsibility

Debriefing (Section 8.08)

Psychologists provide a prompt opportunity for participants to obtain appropriate information about the nature, results, and conclusions of the research, and then take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions that participants may have of which the psychologists are aware. If scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this information, psychologists take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm.

Debriefing

is a post-experimental explanation of the purpose of a study that is given to a participant, especially if deception was used.

• conveying what the study was really all about, if deception was used

• counteracting or minimizing any negative effects of the study

• conveying the educational objective of the research (i.e., explaining the value of the research and the contribution to science of participation in the research)

• explaining the nature of and justification for any deception used

• answering any questions the participant has

Debriefing serves many purposes

Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence

Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility

Principle C: Integrity

Principle D: Justice

Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity

APA General Principles

Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence

Striving to benefit those with whom psychologists work; taking care to do no harm.

Safeguarding the welfare of both human and animal subjects.

Resolving conflicts in responsible ways – avoiding or minimizing harm

Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility

Establishing relationships of trust with those whom they work

Upholding professional standards of conduct, clarifying professional roles and obligations, accepting responsibility, and seeking to manage conflicts of interest that could lead to exploitation or harm.

Consulting/coordinating with other professionals and institutions.

Concern about their own and colleagues' ethical compliance.

Principle C: Integrity

Promoting accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the science, teaching and practice of psychology (guard against fraud, deceit or intentional misrepresentation of fact)

Principle D: Justice

Recognizing that fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to equality in the processes, procedures, and services being conducted by psychologist.

Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity

Respecting the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination (Especially those whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision making)

Awareness of and respect cultural, individual, and role differences, including those based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status, and consider these factors when working with members of such groups.

Eliminating the effect on their work of biases based on those factors, and they do not knowingly participate in or condone activities of others based upon such prejudices.

1. to understand animals for their own sake;

2. to understand humans (many processes can be generalized from nonhumans to humans); and

3. to conduct research that is impossible to conduct using human participants

Researchers who use nonhumans as subjects do so for a variety of reasons including

a) Psychologists acquire, care for, use, and dispose of all animals in compliance with current federal, state, and local laws and regulations, and with professional standards.

b) Psychologists trained in research methods and experienced in the care of laboratory animals closely supervise all procedures involving animals and are responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their comfort, health, and humane treatment.

c) Psychologists ensure that all individuals under their supervision who are using animals have received instruction in research methods and in the care, maintenance, and handling of the species being used, to the extent appropriate for their role.

d) Psychologists make reasonable efforts to minimize discomfort, infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects.

e) Psychologists use a procedure subjecting animals to pain, stress, or privation only when an alternative procedure is unavailable and the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, educational, or applied value.

f) Psychologists perform surgical procedures under appropriate anesthesia and follow techniques to avoid infection and minimize pain during and after surgery.

g) When it is appropriate that an animal's life be terminated, psychologists proceed rapidly, with an effort to minimize pain, and in accordance with accepted procedures.

2002 APA ETHICAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE HUMANE CARE AND USE OF ANIMALS IN RESEARCH 8.09 (Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research)

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

is a committee that examines all proposed research with respect to its treatment of nonhuman subjects. IACUC approval must be obtained prior to conducting any research with nonhuman subjects.

Reporting Research Results

Plagiarism

Ethical Issues and Scientific Integrity

(a) Psychologists do not fabricate data. (See also Standard 5.01a, Avoidance of False or Deceptive Statements .)

(b) If psychologists discover significant errors in their published data, they take reasonable steps to correct such errors in a correction, retraction, erratum, or other appropriate publication means.

Reporting Research Results

Psychologists do not present portions of another's work or data as their own, even if the other work or data source is cited occasionally.

Plagiarism

Plagiarism

An ethical representation of someone else's idea or words as one's own.

1. Take complete notes, including complete citation of the source. (For articles, include author's name, year of publication, title of the article, journal name, volume number, and page numbers. For books, also include the publisher's name and city.)

2. Within your paper, identify the source of any ideas, words, or information that are not your own.

3. Identify any direct quotes by quotation marks at the beginning and end of the quotes, and indicate where you got them.

4. Be careful about paraphrasing (restating someone else's words). It is greatly tempting to lift whole phrases or catchy words from another source. Use your own words instead, or use direct quotes. Be sure to give credit to your sources.

5. Include a complete list of references at the end of the paper. References should include all the information listed in Item 1.

6. If in doubt about whether a citation is necessary, cite the source. You will do no harm by being especially cautious.

Following guidelines can help prevent you from plagiarizing

Original text from Quirin, Kazén, and Kuhl (2009)

Repeating large sections of text verbatim is clearly plagiarism, even with a citation.

Changing a few words is still plagiarism, even with a citation.

Changing most of the wording but keeping the same structure and order of ideas is a step toward paraphrasing but is still plagiarism, even with a citation.

Examples of Plagiarism

Error

is an honest mistake that occurs in the research process

Fraud

is the explicit effort of a researcher to falsify or misrepresent data.

Replication

Peer Review

Safeguarding Against Fraud

Replication

is a repetition of a research study using the same basic procedures used in the original. Either the replication supports the original study by duplicating the original results, or it casts doubt on the original study by demonstrating that the original results is not easily repeated.

Peer Review

takes place when a researcher submits a research article for publication.

Peer Review

reviewers critically scrutinize every aspect of the research (from justification to analysis of data)

Peer Review

primary purpose is to evaluate the quality of the research study and its contribution to scientific knowledge.