Anatomy Exam 1

Dorsal/Posterior

back surface of body

Ventral/Anterior

front surface of body

Superior

above

Inferior

below

medial

middle

lateral

side of the structure or body

proximal

nearest to the base/point of origin

distal

farther from base or point of origin

cranial/ cephalic

toward or related to the head end of the body

rostral

toward the front of the head

Caudal

tail end of the trunk

superficial

on the surface

Deep

situated at a deeper level in relation to other structures

external

toward the outside of surface of a structure or body

internal

toward the inside surface of a structure or body

ipsilateral

same side of body

contralateral

opposite sides of the body

Longitudinal (Vertical) Planes

Sagittal Planes separate the body into right and left sides, it consisists of two types. The median plane splits the body into equal left and right sides, while the paramedian plane separates the body into uneven right and left sides. The Coronal (Frontal) plane divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

Transverse (Horizontal) Plane

splits the body into superior and inferior parts

The Trunk

The body excluding the head and limbs, has four regions: the neck, thorax, abdomen, and pelvis

The Upper Limb

Pectoral Girdle

Brachium (arm)

Antebrachium (forearm)

Manus (hand)

Carpus (wrist)

Metacarpus

Fingers

The Lower Limb

Pelvic Girdle

Clunes (butt)

Coxa (hip)

Thigh

Crus (leg)

Pes (foot)

Tarsus (ankle)

Metatarsus

Toes

Cavities

Cranial

Thoracic

Abdominopelvic

Five Principle Tissues

Epithelial Tissue

Connective and Supporting Tissue

Hematolymphoid Complex

Muscle Tissue

Nervous Tissue

Epithelial Tissue

found on internal and external surfaces, tightly packed cells, avascular. Connective tissue will always be next to epithleial tissue to provide vascularity

Connective and Supporting Tissue

Fewer cells than not cells, connects and supports things, highly vascular

Hematolymphoid Complex

blood and lymph of body- RBC, WBC, platelets, plasma

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Structure:1 layer of flat cells.

Distribution: Endothelium- inside the heart and blood vessels. Mesothelium- covers the surface of organs and lines body cavities

Function: friction reduction, absorption in the exchange systems

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Structure: 1 layer of cube like cells

Distribution: lining of glands

Function: secretion

Nonciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

Most common

Structure: 1 layer of column shaped cells

Distribution: inner lining of the digestive system

Function: absorption, secretion

Ciliated Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Most common

Structure: falsely stratified

Distribution: Inner lining of the respiratory system (Big Tubes)

Function: Secretion of Mucus, protection

Keritinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Structure: Many layers of flat cells, top layer of cells are dead

Distribution: skin, hair, nails

Function: Protection

Nonkeritinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Structure: many layers of flat cells

Distribution: any moist surfaces that need protection from friction and abrasion

Function: Protection

Stratified Cuboidal epithelium

Structure: many layers of cubed shaped cells

Distribution: rare

Stratified Columnar epithelium

Structure: many layers of column like cells

Distribution: rare

Urothelium (Transitional Epithelium)

Structure- transitions between states depending on whether it is empty or full

Distribution: Bladder

Function: Protection

Organization of living matter from basic to most complex

chemistry of life

cells

tissues

organs

organ systems

organism

describe the structural similarities between connective and supporting tissues

both are highly vascular, and contain more cells than not cells. There is a lot of space between the cells and other components

describe the two basic categories of cells in connective tissue.

1) Fixed/Resident Cells: stay in the connective tissue

• Mesenchymal cell: stem cells

• Fibroblasts: make fibers in the connective tissue

• Adipocytes: fat and energy storage

2) Wandering/ Migrant Cells: wander outside the connective tissue

• White Blood cells: body defence and body repair

  • Macrophage

  • mast cell

  • lymphocyte

ground substance

the majority of connective tissue is filled with a thin gel-like watery substance that provides nutrients to the cells within the body

What are the principle fibers of connective tissue

1) Collagen Fibers: thick ropes, very strong, resist tension

2) Elastic Fibers: thin and branching, elastic fibers stretch and recoil, meaning they will return to their original shape after they stretch

Loose Connective Tissue

Structure: spaced-out fibers with a random arrangement

Location: everywhere- always connected to an epithelium

Function: holds structures together, provides a vascular supply to tissues

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Structure: Dense network of fibers in a random arrangement, the fibers go in different directions

Location: Dermis of skin

Function: very strong, able to resist tension in all directions

Dense Regular connective tissue

Structure: Dense network of fibers, the fibers are organized and go in one direction. The fibers and the cells line up

Location: Tendons

Function: Resist a lot of tension in one direction

Elastic Connective Tissue

Structure: contains only branching elastic fibers

Location: in the walla of large arteries

Function: ability to recoil after they are stretched

Reticular Tissue

Structure: contains branching collagen fibers

Location: Lymph nodes and red bone marrow

Function: creates a net/web like material that other cells can grab onto, it also acts as a filter

Adipose Tissue

Structure: filled with adipocytes that can shrink and grow

Location: potentially everywhere, when there are not many adipocytes it becomes loose connective tissue, this varies from person to person

Function: energy storage

Epidermis

Tissue: Stratified squamous epithelium

Layers going from deepest to the most superficial:

1) Stratum Basale- contains keratinocytes that produce keratin, melanocytes that produce melanin. This layer is constantly dividing and pushing the up the layers above it

2) Stratum Spinosum- continues to build keratin but is no longer dividing, this provides protection to the skin and makes it tough

3) Stratum granulosum- keeps water from entering or escaping the body by releasing lipids into spaces

• the stratum lucidum is located between the granulosum and the corneum in areas of thick skin

4) Stratum Corneum- these cells are dead, only the keratin remains. This layer provides protects the epidermis from abrasion

What is the most common cell in the epidermis

Kerationcytes are produced in the stratum basale and as the cells start to die keratin is the only thing that remains. Lack of access the the vascular connective tissue leads to cell death as you move up the layers.

Melanocytes

Produce pigment that protects the dividing cells in the stratum basale from harmful UV rays. They are attatched to Keratinocytes and spread pigment through their projections

Dermis

1) Papillary Layer: superficial layer of the dermis, loose connective tissue, highly vascular

2) Reticular Layer: deep to the papillary layer, dense irregular connective tissue, resists tension from all directions

Dermal Papilla

Made of loose connective tissue so they are highly vascular. these little projections increase surface area, which allows for better adherence to the epidermis and better exchange between the layers. In areas of think skin, they are taller and are arranged into paired rows, this creates friction ridges that enhance grip

Cleavage lines and Stretch Marks of the dermis

made of dense irregular connective tissue where most of the fibers are alligned in the same direction but not all. Stretch marks are caused by tears in the dermis where your body grew faster than your skin could keep up with, the dermis tears where it is the least strong.

Subcutaneous Tissue- Hypodermis

Structure: depending on the level of fat storage in the body, it is either made of lose connective tissue or adipose tissue. It is highly vascular

Layers:

• 1) Fatty Layer- contains adipocytes and is used for energy storage, this is the thickest layer- this layer is vairable depending on lifestyle, it can either be lose connective tissue or adipose tissue

• 2) Fibrous Layer- dense irregular connective tissue, paper thin

Skin ligaments extend from the hypodermis into the reticular layer to connect the layers

What is Invagination

during the early development of the epidermal epithelium, localized areas undergo rapid cell division and push into deeper levels as chords of cells. They become hollow, epithelial lines tubes pushing into the dermis. It is in these hollow areas that skin appendages exist.

Hair

• Hair follicles are made of stratified squamous epithelium and extend from the epidermis into the dermis. The hair follicle wraps itself around the dermal papillae at the bottom.

• Hair grows because of the capillaries in the dermal papillae that supply the hair follicle with a blood supply. the basal cells of the epithelium divide and push into eachother to form a densly packed keratin structure called hair. the cells continue to divide and the hair gets longer.

• Arrector pili muscles attach the epidermis and the bottom of the hair follicle, it is made of smooth muscle. Through their contractions, the hair is pulled up, and the surrounding epidermis is pulled down.

Sebaceous Gland

Structure: Simple cuboidal epithelium

Distribution: everywhere but the palms of hands and soles of feet, they are connected to hair follicles

Secretion: Sebum

Function: sebum is oily, it is the bodies natural lotion

Eccrine sweat gland

Structure: simple cuboidal epithelium

Location: everywhere

Secretion: very watery sweat

Function: Thermoregulation

Apocrine Sweat Gland

Structure: Simple cuboidal epithelium

Location: located on hair follicles in the armpits, anal, and genital regions

Secretion: sweat- pheramones

Function: communication for sexual reproduction

Cartilage

Key Structures

• Chondroblasts and Chondrocytes make the matrix

• Proteoglycan molecules bind tightly to water

• Glycosaminoglycans (GAG) makes cartilage hard

• Collagen and Elastic Fibers

Hyaline Cartilage

Structure: few scattered collagen fibers, proteoglycan, and chondrocytes

Location: articular cartilage on the ends of bones, inside synovial joints

Function: firm and smooth, reduces friction

Fibrocartilage

Structure: Many collagen fibers

Location: intervertebral discs, meniscus

Function: dense and rubber like, minimal movement, shock absorption

Elastic Cartilage

Structure: filled with elastic cartilage

Location: ears, epiglottis

Function: stretch and recoil, can be deformed but recoils into its original shape

Physical Properties of Bone Tissue

1) Strength to resist tension- collagen fibers resist tension in all directions

2) Strength to resist compression- hydroxyapatite mineralizes collagen and makes the bone hard

3) Ability to remodel and change- osteoblasts and osteoclasts break down and build bone tissue depending on how it gets used

List the four cells in bone tissue

• 1) Osteoprogenitor cells- stem cells of the bone

• 2) Osteoblast- builds bone (builds chamber around tissue)

• 3) Osteocyte- maintains/moniters the matrix

• 4) Osteoclast- breaks down/ destroys bone through the enzymes it secretes

Major components

• 1) Organic Components

  • collagen fibers resist tension

• 2) Inorganic components

  • hydroxyapatite- bonds to and mineralizes collagen fibers to make it hard, this is where calcium is stored

Describe how the physical properties of bone tissue relate to bones during bending loads

Collagen resists tension; hydroxyapatite resists compression. When bones bend, the surface of bone experiences the greatest force of tension. This is where the bone typically breaks. The bone breaks on the tension side.

Structures of Bone

• Osteon: column of bone tissue made of multiple rings

• Osteonic canal: center of the osteon, blood vessel is in the middle

• Bone Lacuna: Body of osteocyte lives here

• Bone Canaliculi: little arms off the osteocyte that transport nutrients from lacuna to lacuna

• Osteon concentric lamella: individual tree rings

• Bone trabecula: spongey bone, surrounded by red bone marrow

Compact Bone

contains blood vessels in osteonic canal, found in the outer layer of all bones- Subperiosteal compact bone, Subchondral compact bone

Spongey Bone

found on the ends of long bones, contains red bone marrow. Contains bone trabecula, blood vessels lie in the spaces between the trabecula, red bone marrow surrounds the trabecula. Spongey bone absorbs force