Middle East Study Guide

Which Countries are primarily Sunni Muslim?

Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Palestinians, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, Afghanistan, Turkey

Byzantine Empire

The eastern half of the Roman Empire, which survived for a thousand years after the western half had crumbled into various feudal kingdoms and which finally fell to Ottoman Turkish onslaughts in 1453.

Significance: Eastern half of the Roman Empire that fell to the Ottomans in 1453.

Persian Empire

A series of dynasties centered in modern-day Iran that spanned several centuries—from the sixth century B.C. to the 20th century A.D.

Significance: The Persian Empire contributed greatly to the world with its innovations in fields such as algebra and transportation. It also went from an Empire that mainly followed Zoroastrianism to one that followed Islam.

Umayyad Caliphate

The second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. More accepting of Christians and Jews they conquered, who were known as dhimmis.

Significance: Started a dynastic precedent in Muslim lands that subsequent kingdoms followed.

Abbasid Empire

The third caliphate (750–1258, 1261–1517) to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name.

Significance: The Abbasid Empire was a long-lasting empire that reigned during the Islamic Golden age, bringing innovations in science, medicine, and other academia to the rest of the world.

Ottoman Empire

Empire created by Turkish tribes in Anatolia (Asia Minor) that grew to be one of the most powerful states in the world during the 15th and 16th centuries. This period spanned more than 600 years and came to an end only in 1918.

Significance: An immense and long-lasting Islamic empire that influenced politics, economics, science, religion, and other culture in the regions it controlled, with impacts that are still plainly visible today.

Mughal Empire

Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin that ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid-18th century. After that time it continued to exist as a considerably reduced and increasingly powerless entity until the mid-19th century.

Significance: Ruled most of Northern India, and left an indelible cultural mark on the region. For example, the Taj Mahal was built during the reign of the Mughals.

Prophet Muhammad

Born as a member of the tribe of Quraysh and the clan of Hāshim. His hometown of Mecca houses an ancient and famous pilgrimage sanctuary, the Kaʿbah. Angel Gabriel visits him at age 40 atop Mount Hira and he proceeds to found Islam. Moves from Mecca to Medina following persecution and eventually takes Mecca back. Etc…

Significance: The prophet from which the religion of Islam was created.

Abu Bakr

Following Muhammad's death in 632, succeeded the leadership of the Muslim community as the first Rashidun Caliph. One of the four “rightly guided caliphs”.

Significance: The first Rashidun Caliph, Abu Bakr conquered the whole of the Arabian Peninsula and began invasions into the Byzantine and Sasanian empires.

‘Umar

The second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) as the second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate on 23 August 634

Significance: The second Rashidun Caliph, ‘Umar defeated and conquered the Sasanians as well as most of the Byzantine empire.

‘Uthman

Second cousin, son-in-law and notable companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, as well as the third of the *Rāshidun*, or "Rightly Guided Caliphs". He played a major role in early Islamic history, and is known for having ordered the compilation of the standard version of the Quran.

Significance: The third of the “rightly guided caliphs”. Under his reign, the Islamic empire expanded further until he was assasinated.

‘Ali

Was the last Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, the successor state to the Islamic prophet Muhammad's political dominions. He is considered by Shia Muslims to be the first Imam, the rightful religious and political successor to Muhammad. The issue of succession caused a major rift between Muslims and divided them into two major branches.

Significance: Last caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, and the believed successor of Muhammad to Shi’a Muslims. Was defeated in the battle of Siffin and killed.

Allah

Common Arabic word for God. “The one and only God”.

Significance: Arabic word for God, and applies to each of the three major monotheistic faiths (Islam, Christianity, Judaism).

Islam

Directly means “Submission (to the will of God). An Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad.\[5\]\[6\] Adherents of Islam, called Muslims,\[7\] number approximately 2 billion globally and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians.

Significance: The name given to the monotheistic religion that follows the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, and the second-largest religion in the world. Also the fastest growing religion in the world.

Muslim

Directly translates to “Submitter to Allah”. People who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition.

Significance: The name given to any follower of Islam, regardless of where they live and who they are.

Qur’an

Translates directly to “Recitation”, and is the main text of Islam. Was orally revealed by God to the final prophet, Muhammad, through the archangel Gabriel\[15\]\[16\] incrementally over a period of some 23 years, beginning on Laylat Al Qadr,\[17\] when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death at age 61–62

Significance: The text from which much of Islam is based around and is the compilation of Muhammad’s exchange with the Angel Gabriel.

Sunnah

The traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. What all the Muslims of Muhammad's time evidently saw and followed and passed on to the next generations.

Significance: Muhammad’s actions observed by his followers that comprise what it means to be a good follower of Islam.

Hadith

A statement of the Prophet (peace be upon him) which was narrated by his companions and subsequently narrated to the next generation until these sayings were compiled in ḥadīth collections.

Significance: Hadiths are vital sources of secondary information on the Prophet’s teachings collected by his followers and passed down.

Shi'‘a Islam

The second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (*khalīfa*) and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of Muhammad's other companions (*ṣaḥāba*) at Saqifah.

Significance: The second largest branch of Islam, it is made up of around 10-15% of the world’s Muslims.

Sunni Islam

The largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of the world's Muslims. According to their traditions, Muhammad left no successor and the participants of the Saqifah event appointed Abu Bakr as the next-in-line (the first caliph).

Significance: One of the two branches of Islam, and the largest one comprising 85-90% of the world’s Muslims.

Caliph

In Islamic history the ruler of the Muslim community.

Significance: The ruler of the Muslim community-- both religiously and politically.

Caliphate

The political-religious state comprising the Muslim community and the lands and peoples under its dominion in the centuries following the death (632 CE) of the Prophet Muhammad.

Significance: Caliphates across history are Islamic-ruled states and their people.

Makkah

Generally considered "the fountainhead and cradle of Islam". Revered in Islam as the birthplace of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

Significance: The birth city of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and also the place where the Kabbah resides (where Muslims go during the Hajj)

Madina

The first capital of Islam in history, and the second holiest place for Muslims after Makkah al-Mukarramah. Where Muhammad went after his teachings were not welcomed in Makkah.

Significance: First capital of Islam, and the city that allowed Muhammad to reside after his exile from Makkah.

Shari’a

Islamic canonical law based on the teachings of the Koran and the traditions of the Prophet (Hadith and Sunna), prescribing both religious and secular duties and sometimes retributive penalties for lawbreaking. It has generally been supplemented by legislation adapted to the conditions of the day.

Significance: Shari’a is Islamic law derived from the Qur’an and Muhammad’s tutelage, and is incredibly important for Muslims globally.

Fuqh

Often described as the human understanding and practices of the *sharia,*\[3\] that is human understanding of the divine Islamic law as revealed in the Quran and the *Sunnah* (the teachings and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions). Expands and develops Shariah through interpretation (*ijtihad*) of the Quran and *Sunnah* by Islamic jurists (*ulama*)\[3\] and is implemented by the rulings (*fatwa*) of jurists on questions presented to them.

Significance: Fuqh allows Islamic jurists to create laws of governance (usually ones not specified in the Qur’an) from the religious texts of Islam.

Shahada

Saying and believing that there is no God but God and that Muhammad is prophet. One of the five pillars of Islam.

Significance: The first of the pillars of Islam, Shahada is the profession of faith that is vital to the Muslim community.

Salat

The ritual prayer of Muslims, performed five times daily in a set form.

Significance: Salat is the five times daily prayer ritual that Muslims must perform, and is one of the five pillars of the Islamic faith.

Siyam

Fasting during Ramadan. One of the five pillars of Islam

Significance: One of the five pillars of Islam, Siyam is the fasting that takes place during Ramadan and is considered an exercise in restraint and piety for Muslims.

Zakat

Almsgiving to the poor, based on the value of all of one's possessions.\[13\]\[14\] It is customarily 2.5% (or 1⁄40)\[15\] of a Muslim's total savings and wealth above a minimum amount known as *nisab* each lunar year.

Significance: One of the five pillars of Islam, Zakat embodies the Islamic attribute of charity and selflessness, and as it is usually 2.5% of one’s wealth it is a very powerful tool to help the poor.

Hajj

The pilgrimage to Makkah that Muslims must attempt to complete at least once in their lives, if they are able to.

Significance: One of the five pillars of Islam, the Hajj is an experience that most Muslims must complete by the end of their lives, unless their health or economic status prevents them from doing so.

Hijrah

Means “migration” in Arabic. The Prophet Muhammad's migration (622 ce) from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina) upon invitation in order to escape persecution.

Significance: The Hijrah was the Prophet Muhammad’s (and his followers) migration in 622 CE from Mecca to Medina to escape religious persecution, a date so important to Islam that it marks the beginning of the Islamic Lunar calendar.

Ummah

The domain of Islam. Commonly used to mean the collective community of Islamic people.

Significance: Ummah is the whole of the Islamic people. Anyone who practices Islam is part of this collective, whether they are Arabic, Indonesian, American, or Algerian.

Greater Jihad

Self-discipline and self-improvement, the battle to better oneself.

Significance: The main use of the term “Jihad” in the Muslim community, unlike what most of the Western world has been told, is actually about being the best version of oneself and the best adherent to the faith of Islam. It is an internal, personal struggle.

Lesser Jihad

War in DEFENSE of community or Ummah.

Significance: Jihad is often misconstrued in the Western world, particularly Lesser Jihad, which is waged only when a Muslim community must defend themselves and their people. There are a few terrorist groups that have used Lesser Jihad to justify their actions, but this is not a correct application of the term.

Ahl-al-Dhimma/Ahl-al-Kitab

A historical\[1\] term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection.\[1\]\[2\]: 470  The word literally means "protected person",\[3\] referring to the state's obligation under *sharia* to protect the individual's life, property, as well as freedom of religion, in exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of the *jizya* tax.

Significance: Ahl-al-Dhimma is a great example of religious toleration within the various Islamic Empires, as many Jewish and Christian conquered populations were allowed to live and work within them-- albeit as second class citizens.

Colonialism

The policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.

Significance: The practice of Colonialism, particularly in Northern Africa, is responsible for a number of huge cultural, economic, and political impacts in the Muslim world and these impacts can still be observed today.

Orientalism

Refers to the construction of the Orient by European colonial powers in the 19th Century and onward. As a Western means of dominating and gaining authority over the Orient, it is a style of “thought” based on an ontological and epistemological distinction between the Orient and the Occident.

Significance: Orientalism created erroneous ideas about life in the region in the eyes of Westerners (such as the idea that the people that lived there were sub-human) of which the effects can still be seen even today.

FLN (National Liberation Front)

A nationalist political party in Algeria. It was the principal nationalist movement during the Algerian War and the sole legal and ruling political party of the Algerian state until other parties were legalised in 1989. Established in 1954.

Significance: The FLN was the political part that gave Algeria its eventual independence in 1962, and also ruled the country until 1989.

ALN (National Liberation Army)

The armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front of Algeria during the Algerian War. After Algeria won its independence from France in 1962, was converted into the regular Algerian People's National Armed Forces.

Significance: The ALN was crucial to Algerian independence, carrying out military operations that would eventually convince the French to leave.

Pieds Noirs (Black Feet)

People of French and other European descent who were born in Algeria during the period of French rule from 1830 to 1962; many of whom departed for mainland France once Algeria gained its independence.

Significance: During the period of French rule in Algeria, countless French (and other European) people were born in the then-French colony and were labeled Pieds Noirs by the native Algerians who lived there.

Colons

Another name for Pieds Noirs, the ever-growing French settler population demanded the privileges of a ruling minority in the name of French democracy.

Significance: Another label the Algerians used to designate those they viewed as wrongful colonizers of their own state.

OAS

A far-right\[1\]\[2\]\[3\] French dissident paramilitary and terrorist organisation during the Algerian War. Carried out terrorist attacks, including bombings and assassinations, in an attempt to prevent Algeria's independence from French colonial rule. Motto was “Algeria is French and will remain so.”

Significance: The OAS was a French terrorist organization that attempted to stop Algeria from gaining its independence for it wished to keep it as a part of France.

Prince Abdulkader

The military and religious leader who founded the Algerian state and led the Algerians in their 19th-century struggle against French domination (1840–46).

Significance: Abdulkader founded the Algerian state and led an independence movement against the French from 1840-1846. He was a massive influence for future Algerian independence movements.

Charles de Gaulle

Was a French army officer and statesman who led Free French Forces against Nazi Germany in World War II and chaired the Provisional Government of the French Republic from 1944 to 1946 in order to restore democracy in France. In 1959 declared that the Algerians had the right to determine their own future. Despite terrorist acts by French Algerians opposed to independence and an attempted coup in France by elements of the French army, an agreement was signed in 1962, and Algeria became independent.

Significance: Declared that Algerians had the right to determine their own future in 1959, which precipitated the eventual independence of Algeria in 1962.

King Faysal of Iraq

The last King of Iraq. He reigned from 4 April 1939 until July 1958, when he was killed during the 14 July Revolution. This regicide marked the end of the thirty-seven-year-old Hashemite monarchy in Iraq, which then became a republic.

Significance:

Which Countries are primarily Shi’a Muslim?

Iraq, Iran, Bahrain, plurality in Lebanon

What are the four non-arab MENA states?

Afghanistan, Iran, Israel, Turkey

MENA Countries ordered by GDP/capita

1. Qatar
2. Israel
3. Saudi Arabia
4. Turkey
5. Iran
6. Iraq
7. Jordan
8. Algeria
9. Tunisia
10. Egypt
11. Syria
12. Afghanistan