A&P II Lab Practical #2

Tidal volume (TV)

volume of air inhaled/exhaled with each breath

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

volume of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal, passive exhalation

Vital capacity (VC)

maximum volume of air that can be slowly exhaled after a deep breath in

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

volume of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal, quiet inhalation

Inspiratory capacity (IC)

maximum volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal, passive exhalation

Functional residual capacity (FRC)

volume of air remaining in lungs after normal, passive exhalation

Residual volume (RV)

volume of air remaining in lungs after maximum forceful exhalation

Total lung capacity

maximum volume of air in lungs after forceful inhalation

Average tidal volume in adults

500 ml

2 medullary rhythmicity centers that control breathing

ventral respiratory group (VRG) and dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

Minute ventilation

total volume of air inhaled/exhaled from the lungs in one minute

Forced expiratory volume (FEV)

spirometry test that measures the maximum volume of air forcefully exhaled during a set period of time

Average FEV under normal conditions

75-85% of VC

Muscles involved in normal, passive inhalation/exhalation

diaphragm and external intercostals

Muscles involved in forceful exhalation

diaphragm, internal intercostals, abdominal muscles

Obstructive pulmonary diseases

conditions where airways are narrowed/blocked, making exhalation more difficult

Restrictive pulmonary diseases

conditions where the lung tissue is damaged, making inhalation more difficult

Emphysema

obstructive pulmonary disease that reduces alveoli elasticity/recoil so forceful exhalation is required (internal intercostals and abdominals needed)

Acute asthma

obstructive pulmonary disease where the airways narrow due to bronchiole smooth muscle spasms, so that more forceful exhalation is required (internal intercostals and abdominals needed)

Forced vital capacity (FVC)

spirometry test that measures volume of air that can be forcefully and rapidly exhaled after a maximum inhalation

3 main buffering systems in the body

phosphate, bicarbonate, protein

Respiratory alkalosis

condition where blood pH > 7.45 due to low PCO2 in blood caused by hyperventilation

Respiratory acidosis

condition where blood pH < 7.35 due to high PCO2 in blood caused by hypoventilation

Hyperventilation

increased rate and depth of breathing that can lead to respiratory alkalosis

Hypoventilation

decreased rate and depth of breathing that can lead to respiratory acidosis

Normal blood pH range

7.35-7.45

Normal blood PCO2 range

35-45 mmHg

Carbonic anhydrase

enzyme that catalyzes the formation of carbonic acid from water and CO2

Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR)

volume of air that reaches the respiratory tree structures in one minute

Tachypnea

abnormally fast, shallow breathing and higher respiratory rate, possibly caused by metabolic acidosis

Possible causes for increased urine turbidity

diabetes, kidney stones, UTI, dehydration, STI

Possible causes for urine with lower than normal specific gravity

overhydration, diabetes insipidus, kidney infection or failure, hyposecretion of ADH

Possible causes for urine with higher than normal specific gravity

dehydration, syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH), Addison’s disease

Normal urine pH

5.5-7.5

Possible causes for urine pH > 7

vomiting, kidney failure, UTI

Possible causes for urine pH < 5

diarrhea, metabolic acidosis (ketoacidosis from diabetes mellitus)

Possible causes for protein in urine

kidney disease, nephrotic syndrome, pregnancy

Fertilization

union between sperm and egg where their chromosomes combine and form a zygote

Zygote

diploid fertilized egg that contains one set of chromosomes from sperm and one set of chromosomes from ovum

Cleavage

period following zygote formation where the zygote rapidly undergoes multiple mitotic divisions to form a morula

Morula

clump of 16 or more small cells formed by cleavage of zygote

Gastrulation

series of structural changes that change the 2-layered embryonic disc into an embryo with 3 germ layers

Blastocyst

hollow sphere of trophoblast cells containing fluid and embryoblast that emerges from the zona pellucida and implants in uterine wall

Embryoblast

clump of 20-30 round cells contained within blastocyst that turns into the embryonic disc

Trophoblasts

large, flat cells that make up the blastocyst and adhere to the uterine wall by secreting growth factors and digestive enzymes

Chorionic villi

fingerlike projections that extend from the chorion and help form the placenta

Amnion

translucent membranous sac around embryo that cushions it and maintains its temperature

Chorion

outermost membrane surrounding embryo that forms chorionic villi

Yolk sac

location where the first blood cells are produced that forms part of the gut and provides nutrition to developing embryo during weeks 2-3

Allantois

extraembryonic membrane that is formed by sac of tissue off the yolk sac that provides base structure for umbilical cord and eventually becomes part of urinary bladder

3 germ layers in triploblast

ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

Ectoderm

germ layer that forms the nervous system and skin epidermis

Mesoderm

germ layer that forms all body systems and organs not formed by the endoderm and ectoderm

Endoderm

germ layer that forms the epithelium that lines the digestive, respiratory, and urogenital tracts as well as the glands in each of these systems

Placenta

disc shaped organ formed by chorionic villi and decidua basalis that aids in growth and development of embryo by providing nutrients and oxygen, removing waste, providing immune support, and producing hormones like hCG