Adolescent Substance Use Exam 1

Adolescence

• a young person who is developing into an adult: one who is in the state of adolescence.

• the phasr of life between childhood and adulthood, from ages 10 to 19 (WHO)

characteristics of adolescence

• Manifestation and progression of puberty
• Heightened sexual interest and curiosity
• Enhanced cognition and decision-making abilities
• Increased sensation-seeking and risk-taking, alongside boredom
• Heightened self-awareness with an emphasis on self-image management
• Emphasis on relationships with peers and independence from parents
• Escalation of academic stress

Adolescence

• a young person who is developing into an adult: one who is in the state of adolescence.

• the phasr of life between childhood and adulthood, from ages 10 to 19 (WHO)

characteristics of adolescence

• Manifestation and progression of puberty
• Heightened sexual interest and curiosity
• Enhanced cognition and decision-making abilities
• Increased sensation-seeking and risk-taking, alongside boredom
• Heightened self-awareness with an emphasis on self-image management
• Emphasis on relationships with peers and independence from parents
• Escalation of academic stress

How might characteristics of adolescence be associated with ASU?

• coping strategy

• enhancing relationships with (delinquent peers)

• new self-image

Substance use

a recreational, occasional part of daily life

Substance misuse

a regular part of daily life (e.g., one or two drink per day), unhealthy consumption, control over substance

Substance addiction

compulsive substance seeking and use despite adverse consequences, involving brain disorder

Bomi, A PhD student, enjoyed occasional social drinking with friends. It started as a way to unwind and have fun on weekends. Is this substance use, abuse/misuse, or addiction?

substance use

Bomi found herself unable to function without alcohol. She experienced cravings, mood swings, and physical discomfort when she didn't drink, which made it difficult for her to live a normal daily routine. Is this substance use, abuse/misuse, or addiction?

addiction

As academic stress increased, Bomi found herself turning to alcohol more frequently as a stress reliever. She began having a glass of wine after school to relax. Over time, what was once an occasional habit turned into a daily ritual. However, she made sure not to drink before important presentations on her research to colleagues. Is this substance use, abuse/misuse, or addiction?

abuse/misuse

Adolescence is a developmental period accompanied by several transitions, including social, physical, biological and cognitive aspects. These transitions are also associated with the initiation of substance use.

true

In general, substance use denotes the consumption of legal substances such as alcohol, tobacco, and over- the-counter medicine

false

substance misuse indicates a state in which one consumes substances regularly and cannot control the consumption

false

in the US, the prevalence of marijuana and illicit drugs has decreased since 1991, while that of alcohol use and smoking has risen

false

ASU & Negative Psychological Outcomes

• Example 1: Increased in smoking frequency tends to increase the depressive symptoms. (Wilkinson et a., 2016); Recreational cannabis use increases risk of depression & suicidality (Sultan et al.,2023)

Increases in depressive symptoms increase marijuana use (for males) and smoking (for females) (Wilkinson et a., 2016)

• Example 2: Some studies find that PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder) causes the onset of substance use (Clark et al., 1997; Kessler et al., 1995). Other studies find that ASU causes trauma and PTSD (Cottler et al., 1992; Flores & Milanes, 1992).

ASU & Negative Outcomes: Victimization

• A link between interpersonal victimization (e.g., sexual abuse, physical abuse / assault, and
witnessed community and domestic violence) and ASU
Victimization ASU

• Adolescents who engage in ASU → greater exposed to criminal and deviant lifestyles, unstructured socializing without guardianship; potentially dangerous situations (Danielson et al., 2006).

delinquency

refers to rule-breaking behavior encompassing both illegal offenses (e.g., assault &
theft ) and non-criminal behaviors (e.g., fighting,
bullying, truancy)

ASU & Negative Outcomes: Delinquency

• Adolescents who use substances are more likely than non-users
to commit delinquent acts (White & Gorman, 2000)
• 38.9% of those who stole something worth more than $50 reported past-
month illicit drug use. (SAMHSA, 2005)

The tripartite model (Goldstein, 1985)

Substance use “causes” violent behavior …

1. through psychopharmacological effects

2. by committing a crime to get money to pay for drugs

3. because of systematic violence involved in the illegal drug market

The tripartite model (Goldstein, 1985)

Psychopharmacological effects

Substance use → cognitive processes (attention to cues, interpersonal
communication, awareness of consequences, behavioral inhibition, and
judgement) → an increased likelihood of engaging in violent and risk-taking
behaviors

The tripartite model (Goldstein, 1985)

Economic Motivation

• Drug users engage in crimes such as robbery to obtain drugs or the money
needed for drugs
• Empirical support for the economic motivation primarily comes from adult
heroine addicts; less applicable for adolescents,

The tripartite model (Goldstein, 1985)

Systematic factor

• The system of drug distribution and use is inherently connected with violent crime
(e.g., gang involvement)
• During the 1980s and the 1990s, the crack market attracted a younger group of
sellers than previous drug markets (Fagan & Chin, 1990). This period saw a
significant amount of drug-related violence among youths in inner cities

Delinquent Behavior as a risk factor for ASU

1) Early aggressive and delinquent behavior is a predictor of later alcohol and drug use
and problems (Farrington, 1995; White et al., 1993)
• Aggressive and hostile individuals deal with their emotion through the substance
use (coping strategy; self-medication) or use substances to give them an excuse
to commit an illegal act (Collins,1993)

2) Deviant individuals tend to have ‘deviant peers’ that promote alcohol or drug use
(Collins & Messerschmidt, 1993)
ASU & Negative Outcomes: Delinquency

Common causes (shared factors) between delinquent behavior and ASU

• neighborhood disorganization

• peer delinquency

• school attachment

• family SES

• parental monitoring

• Mental health issues

Does adolescent substance use only work as a “cause” of individual adverse outcomes?
(e.g., depression, sexual risk behaviors, victimization, delinquent behavior etc.,)
or can ASU also be a consequence of these outcomes?

1) ASU can be a cause of individual adverse outcomes.
2) ASU can be a consequence of individual adverse outcomes.
3) ASU can be neither a cause or consequence of adverse outcomes (e.g., delinquency)

adolescent substance use predicts psychological adverse outcomes (e.g., depression, PTSD). This relationship is unidirectional; mental health issues fail to predict substance use

false

adolescents who engage in ASU can also be victimized; for instance, substance users are likely to experience physical abuse from peers

true

According to the tripartite model (Goldstein, 1985), substance users are more likely to be involved in violent behavior to get the money needed for substance use; this argument is strongly supported by empirical evidence from adolescence.

false

A causal relationship between delinquent behavior and adolescent substance use can be observed when they share common causes (e.g., neighborhood disorganization, peer delinquency, and poor parental monitoring).

false

This study examined how Adolescent alcohol and drug use influence the persistence of substance use into adulthood through a premature transition to adult status

Findings:

1. Early initiation of alcohol and drug use during adolescence is associated with an elevated likelihood of various adverse outcomes indicating precocious transition

2. such outcomes include a higher risk of dropping out of school, early pregnancy or impregnating someone, becoming a teenage parent, and prematurely living independently from parents or guardians

3. Those precocious transitions increase the risk for alcohol and drug use during young adulthood

Gateway Hypothesis

a developmental sequence in which adolescents progress from using legal substances, like alcohol or tobacco, to marijuana, and then harder illicit drugs. marijuana acts as a bridge in this sequence linking the use of legal substances to illicit drugs. Marijuana acts as a bridge in this sequence , linking the use of legal substances to illicit drugs

Question 1 of the gateway hypothesis study: Does using marijuana as a teenager lead to using more dangerous illicit drugs later on?

Q1. Yes, teen marijuana use (8th/9th grade) predicts the use of other illicit drugs in young adulthood

• the gateway effect of marijuana is statistically significant even when considering other factors (e.g., stress exposure, age, and age-linked social roles)

Question 2 of the gateway hypothesis study: If marijuana use as a teenager does lead to using more dangerous illicit drugs later on, does that effect apply to illicit substance use or illicit substance abuse?

Q2. Teen marijuana use fails to predict the ‘abuse’ of illicit substances when considering control variables (e.g., stress level age, and age-linked social roles)

Question 3 of the gateway hypothesis study: Does the effect of teen marijuana use persist beyond adolescence, or is it a short term effect of teen marijuana use persist beyond adolescence, or is it a short-term effect that diminishes as adolescents transition to adulthood? (life-course perspective)

Q3. Teen marijuana use does not increase illicit substance use among respondents aged 21 or older; the effect diminishes as adolescents move to adulthood. In other words, marijuana’s gateway effect is valid for people under the age of 21

According to Krohn and colleagues study (1997), adolescent substance use predicts a precocious transition to adult roles and statues. However, such an early transition is not associated with substance use in adulthood, demonstrating the short-term effect of adolescent substance use.

False

The Gateway hypothesis (Kandel, 2002) argues that marijuana acts as a bridge between legal substances (e.g., alcohol and tobacco) and illegal substances (hard drugs). However, it emphasizes that individuals often use hard drugs without a history of marijuana use.

False

Van Gundy and Rebellon (2010) found that the effect of teen marijuana use on illicit drug use persists throughout the 20s

False

Approaches to adultescent substance use

• psychological

• biological

What kind of participants are most ideal for studying the biological perspective of ASU and why?

twins

While initiation of alcohol appears to have a small genetic influence, the frequency of use shows a ____ genetic influence

stronger

Heritability of drug use

• tobacco use have been reported in the range of 36% to 60%

• nicotine dependence has been identified as 44% heritable

• findings from a study indicated that marijuana use has a moderate level of heritability

• illicit drug use has a small to moderate genetic influence

What does this diagram tell us?

genetic influence

What does this diagram tell us?

Environmental influence

Goodwin et al. (1973) Adoption study

Sample: All participants were adopted out within the first 6 weeks after being born & who had no known contact with their biological parents

Treatment group:

• participants: 55 male children of biological parents with alcohol dependence

• results: treatment for alcohol problems (9%); alcohol abuse (18%)

Control group:

• participants: 78 male children of no biological parents with alcohol dependence

• results: treatment for alcohol problems (1%); alcohol abuse (5%)

If adopted offspring share drug issues with their adoptive parents, it implies a genetic influence.

false

If identical twins show a higher similarity for substance use than fraternal twins, it suggests that the genetic effect on substance use.

true

According to the review of twin studies, the genetic effect has a small to moderate impact on adolescents' initiation and use of substances. In particular, the frequency of alcohol and smoking is strongly influenced by environmental factors.

false

Goodwin et al.'s (1973) adoption study find that children of a biological parent with alcohol dependence exhibit higher rates of alcohol abuse and treatment for alcohol problems than those without a biological parent with alcohol dependence. This suggests that environmental influence is stronger than genetic influence on alcohol dependence.

false

McGue et al., (2000)

• examined genetic and environmental influences on lifetime substances

• Participants:

  • late-adolescent twin participation (age 17) from the Minnesota Twin Family Study (MTFS)

  • 626 twin pairs

McGue et al., (2000) RQ 1: What is the degree of genetic and environmental influence on substance use and abuse in late adolescence?

findings:

• Licit substance (tobacco) use and abuse (nicotine
  dependence): 40% to 60%

• Illicit substances and abuse: 25% or less
  Genetic Factor Other environmental factors
  

• Genetic influences are greater for licit
  substance use/abuse compared to illicit
  substance use/abuse

McGue et al., (2000) RQ 2: Are there gender differences in the degree of these influences?

• No significant gender differences in the degree of genetic and environmental
  influences on substance use

According to McGue et al. (2000) Genetic and Environmental Influences on Adolescent Substance Use and Abuse, genetic effects are greater for illicit drugs than licit drugs.

false

Molina and Pelham's study (2003) found that the ADHD group is more likely to start smoking cigarettes, begin daily smoking, and use illicit drugs earlier than the non-ADHD group.

true

Normative conception definition

a violation of a rule agreed upon by the majority of the group in a society

Normative conception assumption

a society has a general set of norms for behavior, conduct, and expectations that the majority of individuals can agree on

Reactive/ Relative Conception definition

deviance is any behavior that is labeled ‘deviant’ by people or society

Reactive/ Relative Conception assumption

no behavior is inherently deviant; people construct a deviant behavior by labeling it as deviant (e.g., making rules)

three components of deviance

• norms

• tolerance

• sanction

norms

social expectations for behaviors in cerain situations and roles; 1) socially constructed, 2) relative

tolerance

the degree to which people and groups are willing to accept behavior or attitudes different from their own

sanction

social reactions to behaviors; informal/formal sanction

deviance

a departure from social norms that elicits social disapproval and negative sanctions

the 1984 National Minimum Drinking Age Act

mandates that states must restrict indivduals under the age of 21 from buying or possessing alcoholic beverages

what happened in 1933 with drinking laws?

most stated set a minimum drinking age at 21 (the 21st amendment)

According to the normative conception of deviance, no behavior is inherently deviant. Instead, deviant behavior is determined by people's reactions to it.

false

the normative conception and the reactive/relative conception are not independent; norms provide the basis for reacting to deviance, and social reactions reflect these norms.

true

Norms refer to 'common' things. Common behavior itself can be a social norm, even though it does not necessarily involve expectations for behavior.

false

Before 1933, when most states set the minimum drinking age to 21, there were no laws related to the minimum drinking age.

true

Environmental risk factors

peer groups, neighborhood disorganization

Environmental protective factors

family (parental) attachment, parenting (e.g., parental monitoring)

susceptibility to peer influence

• Lack of autonomy
• Low refusal skills
• Low self-control (↑impulsivity, ↑ risk-seeking, and ↑ anger)
• High level of perceived importance of peer evaluation
• High rejection sensitivity (High level of concern about potential rejection)
• High peer popularity
• Younger Age
• Male

Parental substance abuse as a risk factor for ASU

• similarity in substance use or misuse between parents and children (e.g., alcohol use, smoking)

• Genetic/ environmental effect or both

• Parents’ favorable attitudes toward drug use and actual parental drug use
  increase the risk of adolescent drug use (Santon et al., 1982; Kandel, 1982)

  • behavior: substance use behavior, skills (e.g., how to use cannabis)

  • attitude: favorable or permissible attitude to substance use

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At a younger age, individuals are more likely to resist peer influence, but as they get older, they become less likely to resist negative peer influence.

false

As a protective factor, a strong attachment to parents can discourage adolescents from using substances; a strong attachment to parents works as social control

true

recent research by Meldrum (2023) reports that parental attachment always protects against adolescent substance use

false

Mertons classical strain theory (1938)

“poorer individuals are likely to experience economic strain. Thus, they are likely to engage in deviant behavior”

critique: failed to explain deviant behaviors committed by middle-class

Robert Agnew General Strain Theory assumptions

1. people adhere to the law under conditions of social order, stability, and integration

2. when individuals experience pressure or strain, they may resort to criminal behavior to address such pressure or strain (coping strategy)

what is strain?

something that makes you feel nervous and worried

What are the primary sources of strain ?

• failure to achieve positively valued goals

• presentation of negative stimuli

• loss of positive stimuli

Strain → Negative emotions → Criminal, Deviant behavior

• Strain by itself is insufficient to ‘directly’ lead to deviant behavior
• Deviance is most likely to occur when strain induces negative emotion, particularly, anger
• Anger arises when one blames the system or others, rather than oneself, for the adverse experiences;
feelings of revenge, low inhabitation, aggressive attributes
(Hoffmann & Spence,2010)

Anger and strain theory

• Only a few studies have supported Agnew’s argument that strain cause deviant
behavior through anger (Aseltine et al., 2000; Piquero and Sealock, 2000)
• Some studies indicates no link between anger and violent delinquency, drug use
or school deviance (Mazerolle et al., 2000).

Women are more distressed than men (Aneshensel, 1992; Mirowsky & Ross, 1989)
But men commit more crimes or are more involved in drug use than women..... why?

Broidy and Agnew (1997)
1. Men experience more ‘criminogenic’ strain than women (Differences in type of strain)
2. Men are more likely to experience and express anger following strain compared with women (Differences in emotional responses to strain)
3. Women are less likely to respond to a given level of strain or emotional distress with crime and deviance compared to men; instead, they use legitimate coping strategies to address strain and distress (Differences in coping strategies)

Robert Agnew revised Merton's classical strain theory in response to its criticism. He believed that his theory could be applicable to criminal or deviant behavior, particularly among individuals from the lower class

false

General Strain Theory emphasizes that strain directly affects deviant behavior.

false

According to GST, criminal/deviant acts are most likely to occur when strain induces anger.

true

According to Broidy & Agnew (1992), women and men differ in terms of the type of
experienced strain, emotional reactions to strain, and coping strategies.

true

Application of GST to ASU

• Fewer studies examining the relationship between strain and
youth substance use
• Specifically, a limited number of studies investigate how
strain affects adolescent substance use through other
negative emotions (e.g., frustration, depression)
= Strain → negative emotions (frustration, depression) → ASU

Leban, L., & Gibson, C. L. (2020) — Examined whether adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) affect adolescent substance use and
delinquency differently between men and women

results:

• Males: ACEs → delinquency

• Females: ACEs → substance use

Leban, L., & Gibson, C. L. (2020) — Gender & differential exposure and reactions to ACEs

• exposure: Women adolescents report encountering a greater number of ACEs than male adolescents; they are more likely to experience multiple types of ACEs compared to males

• reaction: Males who experience ACEs are more likely to feel negative emotions such as anger and frustration Females react to the strain by experiencing 'internalized' responses, including depression, guilt, and anxiety

Self-esteem, social activities, and self-control are significantly correlated with substance use among LGB youth. Therefore, a one-size-fits-all approach for preventing youth substance use may be effective in reducing substance use among LGB youth.

false

Male who experienced ACEs tend to show emotions like anger and frustration, which can lead to delinquent behavior. Conversely, girls are more prone to internalize their distress, experiencing emotions such as depression, guilt, and anxiety, which may contribute to self-destructive actions like substance use.

true

Assumptions of Differential Association Theory & Social Learning Theory

• individuals are not inherently born as criminals (cf., biological theories)

• criminal or deviant behavior is learned

• criminal or deviant behavior is learned through interactions with other persons

Differential Association Theory, Sutherland (1947)

• Developed by Edwin Sutherland, American sociologist
(1883-1950)
→ Criminal behavior is learned like any other behavior
through ‘differential association’
• General sociological theory of crime and delinquency

Differential Association Theory

• Criminal behavior is learned through differential association

  • The learning process primarily occurs within intimate personal groups

• The learning includes: 1) techniques of committing a crime 2) the direction of motives, drives, rationalization, and definition

Definition in DAT

an individual’s own attitudes or meaning toward a given behavior (e.g., right or wrong, good or bad, desirable or undesirable)

Differential Association Theory: Main Argument

• A person engages in criminal/deviant behavior when they have an excess of favorable
definitions to law-violating behavior over definitions unfavorable to it
• Emphasized the role of individual’s attitude in committing criminal or deviant behavior

Limitations of differential association theory

• Failed to ‘adequately’ explain how social learning process (learning mechanism) occurs … led to →

• Burgess & Akers (1966), Akers (1973,1985, 1988) revised and expanded DA theory

  • How? Considered psychological learning principles—operant conditioning developed by behavioral psychologists

SLT: Differential Reinforcement

• The overall balance of both rewards and punishments for particular acts (Akers, 1990)
• Deviant, criminal, or conforming behavior is reinforced through differential reinforcement; the more a behavior is positively reinforced, the more likely it is to be continued.
• Persistence/ Desistence of deviant behavior

SLT: Imitation

• Engaging in behavior after observing it in others (e.g., rolling a marijuana joint and smoking it
• Initiation of deviant behavior

Differential association theory and social learning theory assume that individuals possess traits conducive to deviant behavior from birth.

false